Journal Description
Pathogens
Pathogens
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on pathogens and pathogen-host interactions published monthly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, Embase, PubAg, CaPlus / SciFinder, AGRIS, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Microbiology) / CiteScore - Q2 (General Immunology and Microbiology )
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.3 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2024).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Companion journals for Pathogens include: Parasitologia, Bacteria and Zoonotic Diseases.
Impact Factor:
3.3 (2023);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.5 (2023)
Latest Articles
Effectiveness of an Infection Control Program Among the Ysleta del Sur Pueblo in Preventing COVID-19-Related Hospitalizations and Deaths
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 913; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100913 (registering DOI) - 19 Oct 2024
Abstract
In response to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the United States declared a state of emergency and implemented large-scale shutdowns and public health initiatives to prevent overwhelming public resources. The success of these prevention methods remains unresolved as restrictions and implementation varied from national, state,
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In response to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the United States declared a state of emergency and implemented large-scale shutdowns and public health initiatives to prevent overwhelming public resources. The success of these prevention methods remains unresolved as restrictions and implementation varied from national, state, and local levels. Despite national and local regulations, individual adherence to preventative guidelines presented an additional layer of variability. Cases of COVID-19 continued to rise and fall over a two-year period on a national level, despite masking recommendations, ease of testing, and availability of vaccines. The Ysleta del Sur Pueblo is a Native American tribal community and sovereign nation located in El Paso, Texas. Speaking Rock Entertainment Center is a major business operated by the tribe, employing many tribal and non-tribal members from the El Paso area. Following nationwide re-openings of non-essential businesses, Speaking Rock implemented an infection control program with strict adherence to recommendations provided by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and additional disease control. This response would result in a fully vaccinated workforce within the wider community of El Paso, where the vaccination rate was less than 80%. Herein, we examine the efficacy of these measures and report on the success of the program resulting in zero hospitalizations or deaths compared with rates of 1 in 250 and 1 in 40, respectively, in the surrounding community.
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(This article belongs to the Section Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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Escherichia coli Occurrence and Antimicrobial Resistance in a Swine Slaughtering Process
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Aryele Nunes da Cruz Encide Sampaio, Evelyn Fernanda Flores Caron, Camila Koutsodontis Cerqueira-Cézar, Lára Cristina Bastos Juliano, Leonardo Ereno Tadielo, Patrícia Regina Lopes Melo, Janaína Prieto de Oliveira, José Carlos de Figueiredo Pantoja, Otávio Augusto Martins, Luís Augusto Nero, Fábio Sossai Possebon and Juliano Gonçalves Pereira
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 912; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100912 (registering DOI) - 19 Oct 2024
Abstract
The swine production chain can be a reservoir of antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli, which transfers resistance genes to other bacteria, serving as an important biomarker in the One Health approach. This study aimed to identify the frequency and antimicrobial resistance profile of E.
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The swine production chain can be a reservoir of antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli, which transfers resistance genes to other bacteria, serving as an important biomarker in the One Health approach. This study aimed to identify the frequency and antimicrobial resistance profile of E. coli in the swine production chain, assess the presence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL), and compare resistance profiles across different sample types. A total of 622 samples of swine carcasses from various points of the slaughter process (n = 400), swine feces (n = 100), commercial cuts (n = 45), environment (n = 67), and feces from employees (n = 10) of a pig slaughterhouse certified by the Federal Inspection Service, located in São Paulo state, Brazil, were collected. A total of 1260 E. coli isolates were obtained from the samples, with 73.6% of the samples testing positive. The agar disk diffusion test was performed with 10 different classes of antimicrobials. To confirm the production of ESBLs, the isolates were submitted to a double-disk synergism test using cefotaxime, ceftazidime, and amoxicillin with clavulanic acid. Of the total isolates, 80.71% were multidrug resistant. All ESBL-producing isolates were multidrug resistant and resistant to amoxicillin, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol. Isolates from human feces samples had less chance of being multidrug resistant than samples from other sources. The diversity of resistance profiles was verified in the samples, not clustering according to the sources, except for human feces isolates that clustered, evidencing lower antimicrobial resistance variability of these samples. Antimicrobial resistance is significantly present in the pork production chain, necessitating a comprehensive multidisciplinary approach to effectively mitigate risks within the One Health framework.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Foodborne Pathogens: The Antimicrobial Resistance from Farm to Fork)
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Open AccessArticle
HEV in Blood Donors in Switzerland: The Route to Safe Blood Products
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Mauro Serricchio, Peter Gowland, Nadja Widmer, Martin Stolz and Christoph Niederhauser
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 911; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100911 (registering DOI) - 18 Oct 2024
Abstract
The hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging infectious disease with zoonotic potential, causing acute hepatitis in humans. Infections in healthy individuals are often acute, self-limiting and asymptomatic, thus leading to the underdiagnosis of HEV infections. Asymptomatic HEV infections pose a problem for
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The hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging infectious disease with zoonotic potential, causing acute hepatitis in humans. Infections in healthy individuals are often acute, self-limiting and asymptomatic, thus leading to the underdiagnosis of HEV infections. Asymptomatic HEV infections pose a problem for blood transfusion safety by increasing the risk for transfusion-transmitted HEV infections. Here, we describe the journey from determining the HEV seroprevalence among blood donors to the implementation of routine HEV RNA testing of all blood products in Switzerland in 2018 and summarise the HEV cases detected since. In total, 290 HEV-positive blood donations were detected by mini-pool nucleic acid testing (NAT) in Switzerland in the period of October 2018–December 2023, equal to an incidence of 20.7 per 100,000 donations. Thanks to the implemented scheme, no transfusion-transmitted infections occurred in this period. Furthermore, blood donation monitoring has proven to be an effective means of detecting HEV outbreaks in the general population. HEV cases in Swiss blood donors are caused by two major genotypes, the Swiss-endemic subtypes 3h3 and 3c. Interestingly, 11 HEV cases (5%) were of genotype 3ra, a variant found in wild and farmed rabbits. Our results indicate that mini-pool NAT is an efficient method to reduce the risk of transfusion-transmitted HEV infections.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transfusion-Transmitted Infections)
Open AccessArticle
First Report of Trypanosoma vivax (Duttonella), Babesia bovis and Babesia bigemina DNA in Cattle from the Galapagos Islands, Ecuador, and Its Relationship with Anaplasma marginale
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María Augusta Chávez-Larrea, Cristina Cholota-Iza, Michelle Yugcha-Diaz, Jorge Ron-Román, Freddy Proaño-Pérez, Alicia Maya-Delgado, Jimmy Jumbo-Moreira, Armando Reyna-Bello and Claude Saegerman
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 910; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100910 (registering DOI) - 18 Oct 2024
Abstract
Bovine trypanosomoses, caused by Trypanosoma vivax, is a disease present in African and South American countries. This haemoflagellate protozoan parasite, as well as Anaplasma marginale and Babesia spp., are microorganisms that have a blood tropism, mainly causing fever and anaemia, which reduces
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Bovine trypanosomoses, caused by Trypanosoma vivax, is a disease present in African and South American countries. This haemoflagellate protozoan parasite, as well as Anaplasma marginale and Babesia spp., are microorganisms that have a blood tropism, mainly causing fever and anaemia, which reduces the productive capacity of dairy or meat farms. This study aimed to detect T. vivax and other blood parasites in bovine herds in the Galapagos Islands. A total of 170 blood samples from bovines in 19 farms on Santa Cruz Island (the most populated) were collected and analyzed using different PCR techniques: Da-PCR and CatL-PCR to detect Trypanosoma vivax, CatL-PCR to detect Trypanosoma theileri, ESAG-PCR to detect Trypanosoma evansi, 18S rRNA-PCR to detect Babesia spp., rap-1-PCR to detect Babesia bovis, hyp-PCR to detect Babesia bigemina, and msp5-PCR to detect A. marginale. The prevalence of T. vivax, B. bovis, B. bigemina, and A. marginale was estimated as 14.7%, 11.2%, 14.7%, and 67.1%, respectively. In this study, the presence of four haemotropic agents was evidenced in 26.3% (5/19) of the farms. Coinfected cattle (A. marginale, B. bovis and B. bigemina) had significantly higher body temperatures compared to others (two-sample Wilcoxon rank-sum test; p-value = 0.047). The molecular techniques used in this study demonstrated the presence of T. vivax and B. bovis in cattle from Santa Cruz Island in the Galapagos for the first time. The study also investigates the relationship between T. vivax, A. marginale and Babesia spp., making a significant contribution to the field of veterinary medicine.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases—2nd Edition)
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Open AccessReview
Understanding Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers: Virus Diversity, Vector Ecology, and Public Health Strategies
by
Roger Hewson
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 909; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100909 - 18 Oct 2024
Abstract
Viral haemorrhagic fevers encompass a diverse group of severe, often life-threatening illnesses caused by viruses from multiple families, including Arenaviridae, Filoviridae, Flaviviridae, Hantaviridae, Nairoviridae, Peribunyaviridae, and Phenuiviridae. Characterised by fever and haemorrhagic symptoms, these diseases challenge public health
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Viral haemorrhagic fevers encompass a diverse group of severe, often life-threatening illnesses caused by viruses from multiple families, including Arenaviridae, Filoviridae, Flaviviridae, Hantaviridae, Nairoviridae, Peribunyaviridae, and Phenuiviridae. Characterised by fever and haemorrhagic symptoms, these diseases challenge public health systems by overwhelming healthcare facilities, complicating diagnostic processes, and requiring extensive resources for containment and treatment, especially in resource-limited settings. This discussion explores the intricate relationships between VHFs and their transmission vectors—both animal and arthropod—and examines the impact of ecological and geographic factors on disease spread. The primary transmission of VHFs typically occurs through direct contact with infected animals or via bites from haematophagous arthropods, facilitating zoonotic and, at times, human-to-human transmission. With an emphasis on the role of diverse wildlife, domesticated animals, and vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks in the epidemiology of VHFs, there is a recognised need for robust surveillance and strategic public health responses to manage outbreaks. This review discusses the necessity of interdisciplinary approaches that integrate virology, ecology, and public health to enhance diagnostic capabilities, develop vaccines and antivirals, and improve outbreak interventions. Exploring the ecological and biological dynamics of VHFs will help bolster a deeper understanding of these emerging viruses and underpin preparation for future outbreaks. The importance of enhanced global cooperation, continuous research, and collaboration to mitigate the public health threats posed by these complex infections is a central theme, serving as a foundational strategy to reinforce worldwide preparedness and response efforts. Future directions include addressing gaps in vaccine development and tailoring public health strategies to the unique challenges of managing VHFs, such as the rapid mutation rates of viruses, the need for cold chain logistics for vaccine distribution, and socio-economic barriers to healthcare access, in order to ensure readiness for and effective response to emerging threats worldwide.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Pathogenesis and Emerging Infections)
Open AccessArticle
Genomic Analysis of Aeromonas salmonicida ssp. salmonicida Isolates Collected During Multiple Clinical Outbreaks Supports Association with a Single Epidemiological Unit
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Konrad Wojnarowski, Paulina Cholewińska, Peter Steinbauer, Tobias Lautwein, Wanvisa Hussein, Lisa-Marie Streb and Dušan Palić
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 908; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100908 - 17 Oct 2024
Abstract
Outbreaks of furunculosis cause significant losses in salmonid aquaculture worldwide. With a recent rise in antimicrobial resistance, regulatory measures to minimize the use of antibiotics in animal husbandry, including aquaculture, have increased scrutiny and availability of veterinary medical products to control this disease
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Outbreaks of furunculosis cause significant losses in salmonid aquaculture worldwide. With a recent rise in antimicrobial resistance, regulatory measures to minimize the use of antibiotics in animal husbandry, including aquaculture, have increased scrutiny and availability of veterinary medical products to control this disease in production facilities. In such a regulatory environment, the utility of autogenous vaccines to assist with disease prevention and control as a veterinary-guided prophylactic measure is of high interest to the producers and veterinary services alike. However, evolving concepts of epidemiological units and epidemiological links need to be considered during approval and acceptance procedures for the application of autogenous vaccines in multiple aquaculture facilities. Here, we present the results of solid-state nanopore sequencing (Oxford Nanopore Technologies, ONT) performed on 54 isolates of Aeromonas salmonicida ssp. salmonicida sampled during clinical outbreaks of furunculosis in different aquaculture facilities from Bavaria, Germany, from 2017 to 2020. All of the performed analyses (phylogeny, single nucleotide polymorphism and 3D protein modeling for major immunogenic proteins) support a high probability that all studied isolates belong to the same epidemiological unit. Simultaneously, we describe a cost/effective method of whole genome analysis with the usage of ONT as a viable strategy to study outbreaks of other pathogens in the field of aquatic veterinary medicine for the purpose of developing the best autogenous vaccine candidates applicable to multiple aquaculture establishments.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Epidemiology of Pathogenic Agents)
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Cats: The New Challenge for Rabies Control in the State of Yucatan, Mexico
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Aurea Mariana Salgado-Cardoso, José Ignacio Olave-Leyva, Ivonne Morales, Alvaro Aguilar-Setién, Irma López-Martínez and Nidia Aréchiga-Ceballos
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 907; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100907 - 16 Oct 2024
Abstract
The growing population in Yucatan has led to the expansion of construction in the Mayan jungle for tourist spaces, residential areas, and agriculture. Recently, rabies cases in cats (Felis catus) have increased in the state. This study aimed to perform antigenic
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The growing population in Yucatan has led to the expansion of construction in the Mayan jungle for tourist spaces, residential areas, and agriculture. Recently, rabies cases in cats (Felis catus) have increased in the state. This study aimed to perform antigenic and genetic characterization of the rabies viruses in felines and to present the spatial distribution and environmental features of the areas where these cases were reported. The ArcGIS software and R were employed to generate maps depicting the geographic locations of rabies cases in cats. A total of nine feline rabies cases occurred during the period 2003–2022. Three antigenic variants were detected: dog-related RVV1 (n = 1); vampire bat variant RVV3 (n = 1); and the canine-originated atypical variant (n = 7). Cases reported in Merida (n = 4) and Muna (n = 4) were localized to urban areas, while Cuncunul (n = 1) was rural. This study highlights the concerning resurgence of rabies infections in cats, emphasizing the looming threat of its reintroduction in dogs should vaccination rates diminish. The genetic affinity between the atypical variant and the canine virus underscores the urgent need for vigilance in maintaining high vaccination coverage across all susceptible species.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Zoonoses)
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Open AccessSystematic Review
Schistosomiasis–Microbiota Interactions: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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Philip Afful, Godwin Kwami Abotsi, Czarina Owusua Adu-Gyamfi, George Benyem, Gnatoulma Katawa, Samuel Kyei, Kathrin Arndts, Manuel Ritter and Kwame Kumi Asare
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 906; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100906 - 16 Oct 2024
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Introduction: Schistosomiasis, a tropical disease affecting humans and animals, affected 251.4 million people in 2021. Schistosoma mansoni, S. haematobium, S. intercalatum, and S. japonicum are primary human schistosomes, causing tissue damage, granulomas, ulceration, hemorrhage, and opportunistic pathogen entry. The gut
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Introduction: Schistosomiasis, a tropical disease affecting humans and animals, affected 251.4 million people in 2021. Schistosoma mansoni, S. haematobium, S. intercalatum, and S. japonicum are primary human schistosomes, causing tissue damage, granulomas, ulceration, hemorrhage, and opportunistic pathogen entry. The gut and urinary tract microbiota significantly impact a host’s susceptibility to schistosomiasis, disrupting microbial balance; however, this relationship is not well understood. This systematic review and meta-analysis explores the intricate relationship between schistosomiasis and the host’s microbiota, providing crucial insights into disease pathogenesis and management. Methods: This systematic review used PRISMA guidelines to identify peer-reviewed articles on schistosomiasis and its interactions with the host microbiome, using multiple databases and Google Scholar, providing a robust dataset for analysis. The study utilized Meta-Mar v3.5.1; descriptive tests, random-effects models, and subgroups were analyzed for the interaction between Schistosomiasis and the microbiome. Forest plots, Cochran’s Q test, and Higgins’ inconsistency statistic (I2) were used to assess heterogeneity. Results: The human Schistosoma species were observed to be associated with various bacterial species isolated from blood, stool, urine, sputum, skin, and vaginal or cervical samples. A meta-analysis of the interaction between schistosomiasis and the host microbiome, based on 31 studies, showed 29,784 observations and 5871 events. The pooled estimates indicated a significant association between schistosomiasis and changes in the microbiome of infected individuals. There was considerable heterogeneity with variance effect sizes (p < 0.0001). Subgroup analysis of Schistosoma species demonstrated that S. haematobium was the most significant contributor to the overall heterogeneity, accounting for 62.1% (p < 0.01). S. mansoni contributed 13.0% (p = 0.02), and the coinfection of S. haematobium and S. mansoni accounted for 16.8% of the heterogeneity (p < 0.01), contributing to the variability seen in the pooled analysis. Similarly, praziquantel treatment (RR = 1.68, 95% CI: 1.07–2.64) showed high heterogeneity (Chi2 = 71.42, df = 11, p < 0.01) and also indicated that Schistosoma infections in males (RR = 1.46, 95% CI: 0.00 to 551.30) and females (RR = 2.09, 95% CI: 0.24 to 18.31) have a higher risk of altering the host microbiome. Conclusions: Schistosomiasis significantly disrupts the host microbiota across various bodily sites, leading to increased susceptibility to different bacterial taxa such as E. coli, Klebsiella, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Salmonella, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and Mycobacterium species (M. tuberculosis and M. leprae). This disruption enables these bacteria to produce toxic metabolites, which in turn cause inflammation and facilitate the progression of disease. The impact of schistosomiasis on the vaginal microbiome underscores the necessity for gender-specific approaches to treatment and prevention. Effective management of female genital schistosomiasis (FGS) requires addressing both the parasitic infection and the resulting microbiome imbalances. Additionally, praziquantel-treated individuals have different microbiome compositions compared to individuals with no praziquantel treatment. This suggests that combining praziquantel treatment with probiotics could potentially decrease the disease severity caused by an altered microbiome.
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Open AccessArticle
Toscana Virus in Wild-Caught Sand Flies in Portugal, Findings from the National Vector Surveillance Network, 2023
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Fátima Amaro, Líbia Zé-Zé, Hugo Costa Osório, Patrícia Soares, Manuel Silva, Inês Campos Freitas and Maria João Alves
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 905; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100905 - 15 Oct 2024
Abstract
Phlebotomine sand flies play a crucial role in both human and veterinary medicine, acting as vectors for Leishmania parasites and most known phleboviruses. In Portugal, the REVIVE program, a comprehensive national surveillance network under the Ministry of Health, has included sand fly surveys
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Phlebotomine sand flies play a crucial role in both human and veterinary medicine, acting as vectors for Leishmania parasites and most known phleboviruses. In Portugal, the REVIVE program, a comprehensive national surveillance network under the Ministry of Health, has included sand fly surveys since 2016. REVIVE aims to identify existing sand fly species in the country, determine which pathogens are circulating among them, and provide actionable insights for prevention and control measures when necessary. In this way, annually, from May to October, health technicians collect sand flies across mainland Portugal with CDC light traps. The collected sand flies are sent to the Centre for Vectors and Infectious Diseases Research for species identification and molecular screening of pathogens. On 21 September 2023, Toscana virus (TOSV), a well-known phlebovirus in the Mediterranean region due to its capacity to cause neurological disease, was detected in a pool of 30 sand flies collected in Algarve, the southernmost region of Portugal. A 668 bp partial sequence of the nucleoprotein gene shows similarity with TOSV strains from Spain. To our knowledge, this is the first detection of TOSV in its vector in this country, having previously only been reported in vertebrate hosts. These findings highlight the important role of ongoing surveillance efforts in monitoring and understanding the dynamics of sand fly-borne diseases in Portugal.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)
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Open AccessBrief Report
Visually Asymptomatic Leaf Loss in Xylella fastidiosa-Infected Blueberry Plants
by
Paul M. Severns and Jonathan E. Oliver
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 904; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100904 - 15 Oct 2024
Abstract
Xylella fastidiosa (Xf), a gram-negative bacterium, is a notorious, world-wide plant pathogen with an extended latent period that presents a challenge for early disease detection and control interventions. We used thermal imaging of tissue-cultured, experimentally Xf-infected blueberry plants to identify visually pre-symptomatic leaves
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Xylella fastidiosa (Xf), a gram-negative bacterium, is a notorious, world-wide plant pathogen with an extended latent period that presents a challenge for early disease detection and control interventions. We used thermal imaging of tissue-cultured, experimentally Xf-infected blueberry plants to identify visually pre-symptomatic leaves and compared the minimum force required to dislodge symptomatic leaves from infected plants to leaves on uninfected (control) blueberry plants. For two different blueberry cultivars and one pathogenic isolate of X. fastidiosa, we found no statistical difference between the mean downward force for leaf dislodgement, regardless of symptom category, on Xf-infected blueberry plants. That force was about 50% to 30% of the mean force to remove leaves from uninfected blueberry plants depending on the cultivar. These results indicate that visually pre-symptomatic leaves may be just as readily lost under field conditions as visually symptomatic leaves, both of which are important for early disease detection. Second, some thermally symptomatic and visually symptomatic leaves appeared to self-prune (abscise) and this may be an unrecognized early symptom of Xf-caused disease in blueberries. Last, it is possible that the self-pruning of visually asymptomatic leaves may occur in other agriculturally and culturally important plants infected by X. fastidiosa, but this remains an unrecognized early disease symptom.
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(This article belongs to the Section Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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Open AccessArticle
Assays for Assessing Mycobacterium avium Immunity and Evaluating the Effects of Therapeutics
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Getahun Abate, Krystal A. Meza, Chase G. Colbert and Christopher S. Eickhoff
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 903; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100903 - 15 Oct 2024
Abstract
In Europe and North America, the prevalence of pulmonary nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) is increasing. Most pulmonary NTM infections are caused by the Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC). Sadly, the treatment of pulmonary MAC is suboptimal with failure rates ranging from 37% to 58%. Therefore,
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In Europe and North America, the prevalence of pulmonary nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) is increasing. Most pulmonary NTM infections are caused by the Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC). Sadly, the treatment of pulmonary MAC is suboptimal with failure rates ranging from 37% to 58%. Therefore, there is a need to develop new therapeutics. Developing new immunotherapies and studying their interaction with standard or new drugs requires reliable assays. Four different assays including CFSE-based flow cytometry, in vitro protection assays, IFN-γ ELISPOT, and murine infection models were optimized using a reference strain of MAC (ATCC 700898) to help with the development of immunotherapies for MAC. Expansion of proliferating and IFN-γ producing human T cells is optimal after 7 days of stimulation with MAC at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 0.1, achieving a stimulation index of 26.5 ± 11.6 (mean ± SE). The in vitro protection assay for MAC works best by co-culturing T cells expanded for 7 days with MAC (MOI 1)-infected autologous macrophages. Aerosol MAC infection of mice allows measurement of the effects of the BCG vaccine and clarithromycin. IFN-γ ELISPOT assays with live MAC (MOI 3) stimulation of splenocytes from mice immunized with BCG help identify differences between unimmunized mice and mice immunized with BCG. In conclusion, multiple assays are available for use to identify MAC-specific effector T cells, which will help in the development of new therapeutics or vaccines against pulmonary MAC.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Nontuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM))
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Open AccessArticle
Molecular Dynamics Reveal Key Steps in BAR-Related Membrane Remodeling
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Shenghan Song, Tongtong Li, Amy O. Stevens, Temair Shorty and Yi He
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 902; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100902 - 15 Oct 2024
Abstract
Endocytosis plays a complex role in pathogen-host interactions. It serves as a pathway for pathogens to enter the host cell and acts as a part of the immune defense mechanism. Endocytosis involves the formation of lipid membrane vesicles and the reshaping of the
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Endocytosis plays a complex role in pathogen-host interactions. It serves as a pathway for pathogens to enter the host cell and acts as a part of the immune defense mechanism. Endocytosis involves the formation of lipid membrane vesicles and the reshaping of the cell membrane, a task predominantly managed by proteins containing BAR (Bin1/Amphiphysin/yeast RVS167) domains. Insights into how BAR domains can remodel and reshape cell membranes provide crucial information on infections and can aid the development of treatment. Aiming at deciphering the roles of the BAR dimers in lipid membrane bending and remodeling, we conducted extensive all-atom molecular dynamics simulations and discovered that the presence of helix kinks divides the BAR monomer into two segments—the “arm segment” and the “core segment”—which exhibit distinct movement patterns. Contrary to the prior hypothesis of BAR domains working as a rigid scaffold, we found that it functions in an “Arms-Hands” mode. These findings enhance the understanding of endocytosis, potentially advancing research on pathogen-host interactions and aiding in the identification of new treatment strategies targeting BAR domains.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Host–Pathogen Interaction in 2024)
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Open AccessReview
Trends and Gaps in the Scientific Literature about the Effects of Nutritional Supplements on Canine Leishmaniosis
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Annalisa Previti, Vito Biondi, Diego Antonio Sicuso, Michela Pugliese and Annamaria Passantino
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 901; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100901 - 14 Oct 2024
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In canine leishmaniosis (CanL), complex interactions between the parasites and the immunological background of the host influence the clinical presentation and evolution of infection and disease. Therefore, the potential use of nutraceuticals as immunomodulatory agents becomes of considerable interest. Some biological principles, mainly
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In canine leishmaniosis (CanL), complex interactions between the parasites and the immunological background of the host influence the clinical presentation and evolution of infection and disease. Therefore, the potential use of nutraceuticals as immunomodulatory agents becomes of considerable interest. Some biological principles, mainly derived from plants and referred to as plant-derived nutraceuticals, are considered as supplementation for Leishmania spp. infection. This study provides a systematic review regarding the use of nutraceuticals as a treatment using a text mining (TM) and topic analysis (TA) approach to identify dominant topics of nutritional supplements in leishmaniosis-based research, summarize the temporal trend in topics, interpret the evolution within the last century and highlight any possible research gaps. Scopus® database was screened to select 18 records. Findings revealed an increasing trend in research records since 1994. TM identified terms with the highest weighted frequency and TA highlighted the main research areas, namely “Nutraceutical supports and their anti-inflammatory/antioxidant properties”, “AHCC and nucleotides in CanL”, “Vit. D3 and Leishmaniosis”, “Functional food effects and Leishmaniosis” and “Extract effects and Leishmaniosis”. Despite the existing academic interest, there are only a few studies on this issue so far, which reveals a gap in the literature that should be filled.
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Open AccessBrief Report
Molecular Survey of Parasitic Contamination of Frozen Berries
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Alessandra Barlaam, Marialoreta Datteo, Stefania Perdonò, Antonella Puccini and Annunziata Giangaspero
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 900; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100900 - 14 Oct 2024
Abstract
Berries represent healthy dietary options and contain bioactive compounds associated with a decreased risk of diseases. Despite representing healthy food choices, these products can be contaminated by pathogenic microorganisms, including parasites. Among foodborne parasites, Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora cayetanensis,
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Berries represent healthy dietary options and contain bioactive compounds associated with a decreased risk of diseases. Despite representing healthy food choices, these products can be contaminated by pathogenic microorganisms, including parasites. Among foodborne parasites, Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora cayetanensis, Toxoplasma gondii, and Echinococcus multilocularis are of significant public health importance and have been recently detected in fresh berries in Europe, including Italy. Berries can be purchased fresh or frozen, and it is worrying that even frozen berries could represent a risk for the consumer. In fact, several parasites can resist freezing temperatures and have been responsible for outbreaks of infection. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of G. duodenalis, C. parvum, C. cayetanensis, T. gondii, and E. multilocularis in frozen berries with simplex and multiplex real-time PCR protocols. A total of 108 packages of mixed frozen berries were bought from supermarkets located in a south-eastern region of Italy. The samples were tested using two simplex real-time PCR protocols targeting C. parvum and G. duodenalis, respectively, and a multiplex real-time PCR targeting C. cayetanensis, T. gondii, and E. multilocularis. None of the investigated parasites were detected in the frozen berry samples tested. This research topic is still unexplored and of great current interest. These results represent a first attempt to investigate parasitic contamination of frozen berries sold on the Italian market, but further large-scale surveys are required.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Foodborne and Waterborne Parasites: The Next Frontier of Food Safety)
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Open AccessCommunication
Potential Involvement of Reactive Oxygen Species in the Bactericidal Activity of Eugenol against Salmonella Typhimurium
by
Mohammed Aljuwayd, Elena G. Olson, Asim Zahoor Abbasi, Michael J. Rothrock, Jr., Steven C. Ricke and Young Min Kwon
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 899; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100899 - 14 Oct 2024
Abstract
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There is an increasing need to develop alternative antimicrobials to replace currently used antibiotics. Phytochemicals, such as essential oils, have garnered significant attention in recent years as potential antimicrobials. However, the mechanisms underlying their bactericidal activities are not yet fully understood. In this
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There is an increasing need to develop alternative antimicrobials to replace currently used antibiotics. Phytochemicals, such as essential oils, have garnered significant attention in recent years as potential antimicrobials. However, the mechanisms underlying their bactericidal activities are not yet fully understood. In this study, we investigated the bactericidal activity of eugenol oil against Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) to elucidate its mechanism of action. We hypothesized that eugenol exerts its bactericidal effects through the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which ultimately leads to cell death. The result of this study demonstrated that the bactericidal activity of eugenol against S. Typhimurium was significantly (p < 0.05) mitigated by thiourea (ROS scavenger) or iron chelator 2,2′-dipyridyl, supporting the hypothesis. This finding contributes to a better understanding of the killing mechanism by eugenol oil.
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Open AccessReview
Ocular Toxoplasmosis: Advances in Toxoplasma gondii Biology, Clinical Manifestations, Diagnostics, and Therapy
by
Miki Miyagaki, Yuan Zong, Mingming Yang, Jing Zhang, Yaru Zou, Kyoko Ohno-Matsui and Koju Kamoi
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 898; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100898 - 14 Oct 2024
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Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular parasite, is a globally prevalent pathogen capable of infecting a wide range of warm-blooded animals, including humans. Ocular toxoplasmosis (OT), a severe manifestation of T. gondii infection, can lead to potentially blinding complications. This comprehensive review delves
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Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular parasite, is a globally prevalent pathogen capable of infecting a wide range of warm-blooded animals, including humans. Ocular toxoplasmosis (OT), a severe manifestation of T. gondii infection, can lead to potentially blinding complications. This comprehensive review delves into the current understanding of T. gondii biology, exploring its complex life cycle, diverse transmission routes, and strain diversity. This article provides an in-depth analysis of the clinical manifestations of OT, which can result from both congenital and acquired infections, presenting a spectrum of signs and symptoms. The review examines various diagnostic strategies employed for OT, including clinical examination, multimodal imaging techniques such as fundus fluorescein angiography (FFA), indocyanine green angiography (ICGA), optical coherence tomography (OCT), and optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA), as well as laboratory tests including serology and molecular methods. Despite extensive research, the specific mechanisms underlying ocular involvement in T. gondii infection remain elusive, and current diagnostic options have limitations. Moreover, the treatment of active and recurrent OT remains a challenge. While existing therapies, such as antimicrobial agents and immunosuppressants, can control active infections, they do not offer a definitive cure or completely prevent recurrence. The clinical endpoints for the management of active and recurrent OT are also not yet well-established, and the available treatment methods carry the potential for adverse effects. This article highlights the need for future research to elucidate the pathogenesis of OT, investigate genetic factors influencing susceptibility to infection, and develop more sensitive and specific diagnostic tools. Enhancing global surveillance, implementing robust prevention strategies, and fostering multidisciplinary collaborations will be crucial in reducing the burden of OT and improving patient outcomes. This comprehensive review aims to provide a valuable resource for clinicians, researchers, and policymakers, contributing to a better understanding of T. gondii infection and its impact on ocular health.
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Open AccessArticle
Association of Antibody Responses to Helicobacter pylori Proteins with Colorectal Adenoma and Colorectal Cancer
by
Flavia Genua, Julia Butt, Harsha Ganesan, Tim Waterboer and David J. Hughes
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 897; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100897 - 14 Oct 2024
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) has been implicated in colorectal carcinogenesis. Here, the association of immune responses to bacterial exposure with advancing stages of colorectal neoplasia was assessed by multiplex serology. Immunoglobulin (Ig) A and G antibody responses to thirteen proteins of
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Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) has been implicated in colorectal carcinogenesis. Here, the association of immune responses to bacterial exposure with advancing stages of colorectal neoplasia was assessed by multiplex serology. Immunoglobulin (Ig) A and G antibody responses to thirteen proteins of H. pylori were measured by a Luminex-based multiplex assay in plasma from patients with colorectal cancer (CRC, n = 25), advanced adenoma (n = 82), or small polyps (n = 85) and controls (n = 100). Multivariable logistic regression was used to assess the association of bacterial seropositivity with colorectal neoplasia. The threshold for overall seropositivity required subjects to be positive for at least 4 out of the 13 tested antigens. In a cohort subset with matched data (n = 34), H. pylori seropositivity was correlated with bacterial abundance in both neoplastic and matched normal tissue. While no association was found between H. pylori seropositivity and the presence of CRC, IgA seropositivity to CagA was associated with a decreased risk of advanced adenoma (odds ratio, OR = 0.48, 95% confidence intervals, CIs: 0.24–0.96). Regarding IgG, higher antibody responses to HpaA was associated with advanced adenoma occurrence (OR = 2.46, 95% CI: 1.00–6.01), while responses to HP0395, CagA and Catalase were associated with polyp development (OR = 2.65, 95%, CI: 1.31–5.36, OR = 1.83, 95% CI: 1.01–3.32, and OR = 2.16, CI: 1.09–4.29, respectively). Positive correlations were found between H. pylori abundance in the normal mucosa and levels of both the IgA and IgG antibody response to Catalase and VacA antigens (r = 0.48, p < 0.01; r = 0.37, p = 0.04; r = 0.51, p < 0.01; and r = 0.71, p = 0.04, respectively). Conversely, H. pylori abundance was negatively correlated with levels of IgA antibody response to HpaA and with IgG antibody response to HP0231 in the diseased tissue (r = −0.34, p = 0.04 and r = −0.41, p = 0.01, respectively). The association between levels of H. pylori antigens and colorectal neoplasia risk gradually decreased with the adenoma progression, implicating the early activation of the immune response at the polyp stage. Thus, the evaluation of antibody response to certain bacterial antigens may indicate the presence of early-stage colorectal neoplasia. Further studies are needed to clarify the role H. pylori or the immune response to its antigens may have in colorectal carcinogenesis stages.
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(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)
Open AccessReview
Phage-Based Therapy in Combination with Antibiotics: A Promising Alternative against Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Pathogens
by
Cleo Anastassopoulou, Stefanos Ferous, Aikaterini Petsimeri, Georgia Gioula and Athanasios Tsakris
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 896; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100896 - 14 Oct 2024
Abstract
The continued rise in antimicrobial resistance poses a serious threat to public health worldwide. The use of phages that can have bactericidal activity without disrupting the normal flora represents a promising alternative treatment method. This practice has been successfully applied for decades, mainly
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The continued rise in antimicrobial resistance poses a serious threat to public health worldwide. The use of phages that can have bactericidal activity without disrupting the normal flora represents a promising alternative treatment method. This practice has been successfully applied for decades, mainly in Eastern Europe, and has recently been used as an emergency therapy for compassionate care in the United States. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the pre-clinical and clinical applications of phage therapy concerning three major Gram-negative pathogens: Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter baumannii. The advantages and the challenges of expanding the usage of phages as an alternative or adjunctive treatment for antimicrobial-resistant bacterial infections are discussed. We emphasize the virologic complexities of using the highly adaptable phage populations as molecular tools, along with antibiotic chemical compounds, to effectively combat rapidly coevolving pathogenic bacteria in the host microenvironment. Pre-clinical studies, isolated clinical reports and a few randomized clinical trials have shown that bacteriophages can be effective in treating multidrug-resistant bacterial infections. The ability of some phages to revert the resistance against antibiotics, and possibly also against the human complement and other phages, appears to be a great advantage of phage therapy despite the inevitable emergence of phage-resistant strains. Bacteriophages (or specific phage-derived products) can enhance antimicrobial efficacy by reducing bacterial virulence via the alteration of basic bacterial structures, primarily of the cellular wall and membrane. Although several issues remain open regarding their effective clinical application, it appears that phage-based therapeutics in combination with antibiotics can provide an effective solution to the spread of antimicrobial resistance.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogenesis Mechanisms and Antimicrobial Strategies against Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens)
Open AccessArticle
Potentially Pathogenic Free-Living Amoebae Isolated from Soil Samples from Warsaw Parks and Squares
by
Edyta Beata Hendiger-Rizo, Magdalena Chmielewska-Jeznach, Katarzyna Poreda, Aitor Rizo Liendo, Anna Koryszewska-Bagińska, Gabriela Olędzka and Marcin Padzik
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 895; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100895 - 12 Oct 2024
Abstract
Free-living amoebae (FLA) are prevalent in diverse environments, representing various genera and species with different pathogenicity. FLA-induced infections, such as the highly fatal amoebic encephalitis, with a mortality rate of 99%, primarily affect immunocompromised individuals while others such as Acanthamoeba keratitis (AK) and
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Free-living amoebae (FLA) are prevalent in diverse environments, representing various genera and species with different pathogenicity. FLA-induced infections, such as the highly fatal amoebic encephalitis, with a mortality rate of 99%, primarily affect immunocompromised individuals while others such as Acanthamoeba keratitis (AK) and cutaneous amebiasis may affect immunocompetent individuals. Despite the prevalence of FLA, there is a lack of standardized guidelines for their detection near human habitats. To date, no studies on the isolation and identification of FLA in environmental soil samples in Warsaw have been published. The aim of this study was to determine the presence of amoebae in soil samples collected from Warsaw parks and squares frequented by humans. The isolated protozoa were genotyped. Additionally, their pathogenic potential was determined through thermophilicity tests. A total of 23 soil samples were seeded on non-nutrient agar plates (NNA) at 26 °C and monitored daily for FLA presence. From the total of 23 samples, 18 were positive for FLA growth in NNA and PCR (78.2%). Acanthamoeba spp. was the most frequently isolated genus, with a total of 13 positive samples (13/18; 72.2%), and the T4 genotype being the most common. Moreover, Platyamoeba placida (3/18; 16.7%), Stenamoeba berchidia (1/18; 5.6%) and Allovahlkampfia sp. (1/18; 5.6%), also potentially pathogenic amoebae, were isolated. To our knowledge, this is the first report of FLA presence and characterization in the Warsaw area.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Opportunistic and Rare Parasitic Infections)
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Open AccessArticle
Molecular Characterization of Anaplasma spp. in Cattle from Kazakhstan
by
Madina Kadyrova, Alexandr Ostrovskii, Kassym Mukanov, Amirkhan Kassen, Elena Shevtsova, Maxat Berdikulov, Gilles Vergnaud and Alexandr Shevtsov
Pathogens 2024, 13(10), 894; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13100894 - 12 Oct 2024
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Bovine anaplasmosis is an infectious vector-borne disease caused by bacteria of the genus Anaplasma, which have a wide global distribution and represent a high economic burden for agriculture. The use of molecular genetic techniques has increased our knowledge of the species diversity
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Bovine anaplasmosis is an infectious vector-borne disease caused by bacteria of the genus Anaplasma, which have a wide global distribution and represent a high economic burden for agriculture. The use of molecular genetic techniques has increased our knowledge of the species diversity of Anaplasma spp. and naturally susceptible animals. Monitoring studies allow us to assess the level of infection in herds, as well as the involvement of natural vectors in the processes of maintaining and spreading infection. Despite the high prevalence of Theileria and Babesia in cattle in Kazakhstan, there is no information on the distribution and species diversity of Anaplasma spp in this country. As part of this work, 7027 DNA samples isolated from the whole blood of cattle from 175 settlements in all 17 Kazakhstan regions were PCR-tested for the presence of Anaplasma spp. Anaplasma carriers were found in 1.3% (90 out of 7027) of the tested animals in 9 of the 17 regions of Kazakhstan. The highest percentage of infected animals was recorded in Turkistan (South Kazakhstan) and North Kazakhstan with 4.46% and 2.48% positive samples, respectively. The partial sequencing of 16S rRNA and the groEL gene allowed us to identify five species of Anaplasma: A. centrale, A. marginale, Candidatus Anaplasma Mongolica, A. ovis, and Unknown Anaplasma with infection rates of 0.63%, 0.44%, 0.13%, 0.01%, and 0.01%, respectively.
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