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Polymers
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Hybrid Polymer/Lipid Membranes and Thin Films
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Hybrid Polymer/Lipid Membranes and Thin Films

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2020) | Viewed by 45429

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jean-François Le Meins

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Guest Editor
Laboratoire de Chimie des Polymères Organiques, LCPO, Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, UMR 5629, Avenue Pey Berland, F-33600 Pessac, France
Interests: block copolymer self-assembly; bio-inspired vesicular structures; tuning of membrane properties; polymer–lipid hybrid vesicles; rheology of complex fluids; supramolecular networks
Dr. Paul Beales

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, School of Chemistry, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
Interests: biomolecular self-assembly; membrane biophysics; bionanotechnology; soft matter and biological physics; bottom-up synthetic biology; nanomedicine; nanotoxicology; vesicle technologies; hydrogels

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent years, the association of lipids and in particular phospholipids with (co)polymers to design hybrid polymer–lipid membranes in the form of vesicles or thin films has been the subject of an increasing number of studies. The driving force behind this surging interest is often the design of entities that synergistically combine the benefits of each component (biofunctionality, the permeability of lipid bilayers, the mechanical stability and chemical versatility of polymer membranes), which can be exploited in applications such as controlled and targeted drug delivery, biomolecular recognition within biosensors for diagnosis, functional membranes for artificial cells, and the development of bioinspired micro/nanoreactors.
To date, relatively few studies have focused on understanding structure–property relationships between molecular parameters (nature of the lipids and copolymers used, lipid fraction, physical state and fluidity of the lipid phases) and membrane or film nanostructure. Processes for obtaining these hybrid nanostructures are another aspect that warrants further investigation. However, promising results have been reported, such as membrane protein insertion in hybrid membranes, or enhanced biodistribution through advantageous in vivo targeting mechanisms that confirm the high potential of these hybrid polymer/lipid self-assemblies.
The aim of this Special Issue of Polymers is to highlight the progress made in understanding fundamental aspects of hybrid lipid–polymer vesicles, including composition/structure/property relationships, formation protocols and mechanisms and the incorporation of additional functional components, and the potential uses of hybrid vesicles within biotechnology, biomedical, nanotechnology, and chemical applications. Experimental or theoretical original research papers that can expand our understanding of these systems and illustrate their future applications and technologies are sought.

Dr. Jean-François Le Meins
Dr. Paul Beales
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • phospholipids
  • copolymers
  • self-assembly
  • films
  • liposomes
  • polymersomes
  • hybrid polymer/lipid vesicles
  • hybrid polymer/lipid thin films
  • membrane bilayers
  • membrane properties
  • nano-microreactors
  • biosensors
  • drug delivery
  • cell mimic
  • bioinspired polymer materials

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

15 pages, 2522 KiB  
Article
Hybrid Unilamellar Vesicles of Phospholipids and Block Copolymers with Crystalline Domains
by Yoo Kyung Go, Nurila Kambar and Cecilia Leal
Polymers 2020, 12(6), 1232; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12061232 - 29 May 2020
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4927
Abstract
Phospholipid (PL) membranes are ubiquitous in nature and their phase behavior has been extensively studied. Lipids assemble in a variety of structures and external stimuli can activate a quick switch between them. Amphiphilic block copolymers (BCPs) can self-organize in analogous structures but are [...] Read more.
Phospholipid (PL) membranes are ubiquitous in nature and their phase behavior has been extensively studied. Lipids assemble in a variety of structures and external stimuli can activate a quick switch between them. Amphiphilic block copolymers (BCPs) can self-organize in analogous structures but are mechanically more robust and transformations are considerably slower. The combination of PL dynamical behavior with BCP chemical richness could lead to new materials for applications in bioinspired separation membranes and drug delivery. It is timely to underpin the phase behavior of these hybrid systems and a few recent studies have revealed that PL–BCP membranes display synergistic structural, phase-separation, and dynamical properties not seen in pure components. One example is phase-separation in the membrane plane, which seems to be strongly affected by the ability of the PL to form lamellar phases with ordered alkyl chains. In this paper we focus on a rather less explored design handle which is the crystalline properties of the BCP component. Using a combination of confocal laser scanning microscopy and X-ray scattering we show that hybrid membranes of 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) and methoxy-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(ε-caprolactone) (mPEG-b-PCL) display BCP-rich and PL-rich domains when the BCP comprises crystalline moieties. The packing of the hydrophilic part of the BCP (PEG) favors mixing of DPPC at the molecular level or into nanoscale domains while semi-crystalline and hydrophobic PCL moieties bolster microscopic domain formation in the hybrid membrane plane. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Polymer/Lipid Membranes and Thin Films)
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22 pages, 2378 KiB  
Article
Characterisation of Hybrid Polymersome Vesicles Containing the Efflux Pumps NaAtm1 or P-Glycoprotein
by Sarah Rottet, Shagufta Iqbal, Paul A. Beales, Anran Lin, Jiwon Lee, Melanie Rug, Colin Scott and Richard Callaghan
Polymers 2020, 12(5), 1049; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12051049 - 3 May 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4341
Abstract
Investigative systems for purified membrane transporters are almost exclusively reliant on the use of phospholipid vesicles or liposomes. Liposomes provide an environment to support protein function; however, they also have numerous drawbacks and should not be considered as a “one-size fits all” system. [...] Read more.
Investigative systems for purified membrane transporters are almost exclusively reliant on the use of phospholipid vesicles or liposomes. Liposomes provide an environment to support protein function; however, they also have numerous drawbacks and should not be considered as a “one-size fits all” system. The use of artificial vesicles comprising block co-polymers (polymersomes) offers considerable advantages in terms of structural stability; provision of sufficient lateral pressure; and low passive permeability, which is a particular issue for transport assays using hydrophobic compounds. The present investigation demonstrates strategies to reconstitute ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters into hybrid vesicles combining phospholipids and the block co-polymer poly (butadiene)-poly (ethylene oxide). Two efflux pumps were chosen; namely the Novosphingobium aromaticivorans Atm1 protein and human P-glycoprotein (Pgp). Polymersomes were generated with one of two lipid partners, either purified palmitoyl-oleoyl-phosphatidylcholine, or a mixture of crude E. coli lipid extract and cholesterol. Hybrid polymersomes were characterised for size, structural homogeneity, stability to detergents, and permeability. Two transporters, NaAtm1 and P-gp, were successfully reconstituted into pre-formed and surfactant-destabilised hybrid polymersomes using a detergent adsorption strategy. Reconstitution of both proteins was confirmed by density gradient centrifugation and the hybrid polymersomes supported substrate dependent ATPase activity of both transporters. The hybrid polymersomes also displayed low passive permeability to a fluorescent probe (calcein acetomethoxyl-ester (C-AM)) and offer the potential for quantitative measurements of transport activity for hydrophobic compounds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Polymer/Lipid Membranes and Thin Films)
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18 pages, 3680 KiB  
Article
Facile Mixing of Phospholipids Promotes Self-Assembly of Low-Molecular-Weight Biodegradable Block Co-Polymers into Functional Vesicular Architectures
by Amit Kumar Khan, James C. S. Ho, Susmita Roy, Bo Liedberg and Madhavan Nallani
Polymers 2020, 12(4), 979; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12040979 - 22 Apr 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5776
Abstract
In this work, we have used low-molecular-weight (PEG12-b-PCL6, PEG12-b-PCL9 or PEG16-b-PLA38; MW, 1.25–3.45 kDa) biodegradable block co-polymers to construct nano- and micron-scaled hybrid (polymer/lipid) [...] Read more.
In this work, we have used low-molecular-weight (PEG12-b-PCL6, PEG12-b-PCL9 or PEG16-b-PLA38; MW, 1.25–3.45 kDa) biodegradable block co-polymers to construct nano- and micron-scaled hybrid (polymer/lipid) vesicles, by solvent dispersion and electroformation methods, respectively. The hybrid vesicles exhibit physical properties (size, bilayer thickness and small molecule encapsulation) of a vesicular boundary, confirmed by cryogenic transmission electron microscopy, calcein leakage assay and dynamic light scattering. Importantly, we find that these low MW polymers, on their own, do not self-assemble into polymersomes at nano and micron scales. Using giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) model, their surface topographies are homogeneous, independent of cholesterol, suggesting more energetically favorable mixing of lipid and polymer. Despite this mixed topography with a bilayer thickness similar to that of a lipid bilayer, variation in surface topology is demonstrated using the interfacial sensitive phospholipase A2 (sPLA2). The biodegradable hybrid vesicles are less sensitive to the phospholipase digestion, reminiscent of PEGylated vesicles, and the degree of sensitivity is polymer-dependent, implying that the nano-scale surface topology can further be tuned by its chemical composition. Our results reveal and emphasize the role of phospholipids in promoting low MW polymers for spontaneous vesicular self-assembly, generating a functional hybrid lipid-polymer interface. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Polymer/Lipid Membranes and Thin Films)
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17 pages, 4043 KiB  
Article
Hybrid Vesicle Stability under Sterilisation and Preservation Processes Used in the Manufacture of Medicinal Formulations
by Rashmi Seneviratne, Lars J. C. Jeuken, Michael Rappolt and Paul A. Beales
Polymers 2020, 12(4), 914; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12040914 - 15 Apr 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3137
Abstract
Sterilisation and preservation of vesicle formulations are important considerations for their viable manufacture for industry applications, particular those intended for medicinal use. Here, we undertake an initial investigation of the stability of hybrid lipid-block copolymer vesicles to common sterilisation and preservation processes, with [...] Read more.
Sterilisation and preservation of vesicle formulations are important considerations for their viable manufacture for industry applications, particular those intended for medicinal use. Here, we undertake an initial investigation of the stability of hybrid lipid-block copolymer vesicles to common sterilisation and preservation processes, with particular interest in how the block copolymer component might tune vesicle stability. We investigate two sizes of polybutadiene-block-poly(ethylene oxide) polymers (PBd12-PEO11 and PBd22-PEO14) mixed with the phospholipid 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) considering the encapsulation stability of a fluorescent cargo and the colloidal stability of vesicle size distributions. We find that autoclaving and lyophilisation cause complete loss of encapsulation stability under the conditions studied here. Filtering through 200 nm pores appears to be viable for sterilisation for all vesicle compositions with comparatively low release of encapsulated cargo, even for vesicle size distributions which extend beyond the 200 nm filter pore size. Freeze-thaw of vesicles also shows promise for the preservation of hybrid vesicles with high block copolymer content. We discuss the process stability of hybrid vesicles in terms of the complex mechanical interplay between bending resistance, stretching elasticity and lysis strain of these membranes and propose strategies for future work to further enhance the process stability of these vesicle formulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Polymer/Lipid Membranes and Thin Films)
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14 pages, 2046 KiB  
Article
Hybrid Lipid-Polymer Bilayers: pH-Mediated Interactions between Hybrid Vesicles and Glass
by Keith L. Willes, Jasmyn R. Genchev and Walter F. Paxton
Polymers 2020, 12(4), 745; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12040745 - 28 Mar 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3488
Abstract
One practical approach towards robust and stable biomimetic platforms is to generate hybrid bilayers that incorporate both lipids and block co-polymer amphiphiles. The currently limited number of reports on the interaction of glass surfaces with hybrid lipid and polymer vesicles—DOPC mixed with amphiphilic [...] Read more.
One practical approach towards robust and stable biomimetic platforms is to generate hybrid bilayers that incorporate both lipids and block co-polymer amphiphiles. The currently limited number of reports on the interaction of glass surfaces with hybrid lipid and polymer vesicles—DOPC mixed with amphiphilic poly(ethylene oxide-b-butadiene) (PEO-PBd)—describe substantially different conclusions under very similar conditions (i.e., same pH). In this study, we varied vesicle composition and solution pH in order to generate a broader picture of spontaneous hybrid lipid/polymer vesicle interactions with rigid supports. Using quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D), we followed the interaction of hybrid lipid-polymer vesicles with borosilicate glass as a function of pH. We found pH-dependent adsorption/fusion of hybrid vesicles that accounts for some of the contradictory results observed in previous studies. Our results show that the formation of hybrid lipid-polymer bilayers is highly pH dependent and indicate that the interaction between glass surfaces and hybrid DOPC/PEO-PBd can be tuned with pH. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Polymer/Lipid Membranes and Thin Films)
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14 pages, 3159 KiB  
Article
Formation of Asymmetric and Symmetric Hybrid Membranes of Lipids and Triblock Copolymers
by Hsiang-Chi Tsai, Yan-Ling Yang, Yu-Jane Sheng and Heng-Kwong Tsao
Polymers 2020, 12(3), 639; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12030639 - 11 Mar 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3232
Abstract
Hybrid membranes formed by co-assembly of AxByAx (hydrophilic-hydrophobic-hydrophilic) triblock copolymers into lipid bilayers are investigated by dissipative particle dynamics. Homogeneous hybrid membranes are developed as lipids and polymers are fully compatible. The polymer conformations can be simply classified [...] Read more.
Hybrid membranes formed by co-assembly of AxByAx (hydrophilic-hydrophobic-hydrophilic) triblock copolymers into lipid bilayers are investigated by dissipative particle dynamics. Homogeneous hybrid membranes are developed as lipids and polymers are fully compatible. The polymer conformations can be simply classified into bridge- and loop-structures in the membranes. It is interesting to find that the long-time fraction of loop-conformation ( f L ) of copolymers in the membrane depends significantly on the hydrophilic block length (x). As x is small, an equilibrium f L * always results irrespective of the initial conformation distribution and its value depends on the hydrophobic block length (y). For large x, f L tends to be time-invariant because polymers are kinetically trapped in their initial structures. Our findings reveal that only symmetric hybrid membranes are formed for small x, while membranes with stable asymmetric leaflets can be constructed with large x. The effects of block lengths on the polymer conformations, such as transverse and lateral spans ( d ⊥ and d ‖ ) of bridge- and loop-conformations, are discussed as well. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Polymer/Lipid Membranes and Thin Films)
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13 pages, 2551 KiB  
Article
Switchable Lipid Provides pH-Sensitive Properties to Lipid and Hybrid Polymer/Lipid Membranes
by Victor Passos Gibson, Martin Fauquignon, Emmanuel Ibarboure, Jeanne Leblond Chain and Jean-François Le Meins
Polymers 2020, 12(3), 637; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12030637 - 11 Mar 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3541
Abstract
Blending amphiphilic copolymers and lipids constitutes a novel approach to combine the advantages of polymersomes and liposomes into a new single hybrid membrane. Efforts have been made to design stimuli-responsive vesicles, in which the membrane’s dynamic is modulated by specific triggers. In this [...] Read more.
Blending amphiphilic copolymers and lipids constitutes a novel approach to combine the advantages of polymersomes and liposomes into a new single hybrid membrane. Efforts have been made to design stimuli-responsive vesicles, in which the membrane’s dynamic is modulated by specific triggers. In this investigation, we proposed the design of pH-responsive hybrid vesicles formulated with poly(dimethylsiloxane)-block-poly(ethylene oxide) backbone (PDMS36-b-PEO23) and cationic switchable lipid (CSL). The latter undergoes a pH-triggered conformational change and induces membrane destabilization. Using confocal imaging and DLS measurements, we interrogated the structural changes in CSL-doped lipid and hybrid polymer/lipid unilamellar vesicles at the micro- and nanometric scale, respectively. Both switchable giant unilamellar lipid vesicles (GUV) and hybrid polymer/lipid unilamellar vesicles (GHUV) presented dynamic morphological changes, including protrusions and fission upon acidification. At the submicron scale, scattered intensity decreased for both switchable large unilamellar vesicles (LUV) and hybrid vesicles (LHUV) under acidic pH. Finally, monitoring the fluorescence leakage of encapsulated calcein, we attested that CSL increased the permeability of GUV and GHUV in a pH-specific fashion. Altogether, these results show that switchable lipids provide a pH-sensitive behavior to hybrid polymer/lipid vesicles that could be exploited for the triggered release of drugs, cell biomimicry studies, or as bioinspired micro/nanoreactors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Polymer/Lipid Membranes and Thin Films)
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17 pages, 7153 KiB  
Article
Large and Giant Unilamellar Vesicle(s) Obtained by Self-Assembly of Poly(dimethylsiloxane)-b-poly(ethylene oxide) Diblock Copolymers, Membrane Properties and Preliminary Investigation of Their Ability to Form Hybrid Polymer/Lipid Vesicles
by Martin Fauquignon, Emmanuel Ibarboure, Stéphane Carlotti, Annie Brûlet, Marc Schmutz and Jean-François Le Meins
Polymers 2019, 11(12), 2013; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11122013 - 4 Dec 2019
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5474
Abstract
In the emerging field of hybrid polymer/lipid vesicles, relatively few copolymers have been evaluated regarding their ability to form these structures and the resulting membrane properties have been scarcely studied. Here, we present the synthesis and self-assembly in solution of poly(dimethylsiloxane)-block-poly(ethylene [...] Read more.
In the emerging field of hybrid polymer/lipid vesicles, relatively few copolymers have been evaluated regarding their ability to form these structures and the resulting membrane properties have been scarcely studied. Here, we present the synthesis and self-assembly in solution of poly(dimethylsiloxane)-block-poly(ethylene oxide) diblock copolymers (PDMS-b-PEO). A library of different PDMS-b-PEO diblock copolymers was synthesized using ring-opening polymerization of hexamethylcyclotrisiloxane (D3) and further coupling with PEO chains via click chemistry. Self-assembly of the copolymers in water was studied using Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), Static Light Scattering (SLS), Small Angle Neutron Scattering (SANS), and Cryo-Transmission Electron Microscopy (Cryo-TEM). Giant polymersomes obtained by electroformation present high toughness compared to those obtained from triblock copolymer in previous studies, for similar membrane thickness. Interestingly, these copolymers can be associated to phospholipids to form Giant Hybrid Unilamellar Vesicles (GHUV); preliminary investigations of their mechanical properties show that tough hybrid vesicles can be obtained. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Polymer/Lipid Membranes and Thin Films)
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25 pages, 3078 KiB  
Article
Stimuli-Responsive Lyotropic Liquid Crystalline Nanosystems with Incorporated Poly(2-Dimethylamino Ethyl Methacrylate)-b-Poly(Lauryl Methacrylate) Amphiphilic Block Copolymer
by Maria Chountoulesi, Natassa Pippa, Varvara Chrysostomou, Stergios Pispas, Evangelia D. Chrysina, Aleksander Forys, Lukasz Otulakowski, Barbara Trzebicka and Costas Demetzos
Polymers 2019, 11(9), 1400; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11091400 - 26 Aug 2019
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4201
Abstract
There is an emerging need to evolve the conventional lyotropic liquid crystalline nanoparticles to advanced stimuli-responsive, therapeutic nanosystems with upgraded functionality. Towards this effort, typically used stabilizers, such as Pluronics®, can be combined or replaced by smart, stimuli-responsive block copolymers. The [...] Read more.
There is an emerging need to evolve the conventional lyotropic liquid crystalline nanoparticles to advanced stimuli-responsive, therapeutic nanosystems with upgraded functionality. Towards this effort, typically used stabilizers, such as Pluronics®, can be combined or replaced by smart, stimuli-responsive block copolymers. The aim of this study is to incorporate the stimuli-responsive amphiphilic block copolymer poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate)-b-poly(lauryl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA-b-PLMA) as a stabilizer in lipidic liquid crystalline nanoparticles, in order to provide steric stabilization and simultaneous stimuli-responsiveness. The physicochemical and morphological characteristics of the prepared nanosystems were investigated by light scattering techniques, cryogenic-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and fluorescence spectroscopy. The PDMAEMA-b-PLMA, either individually or combined with Poloxamer 407, exhibited different modes of stabilization depending on the lipid used. Due to the protonation ability of PDMAEMA blocks in acidic pH, the nanoparticles exhibited high positive charge, as well as pH-responsive charge conversion, which can be exploited towards pharmaceutical applications. The ionic strength, temperature and serum proteins influenced the physicochemical behavior of the nanoparticles, while the polymer concentration differentiated their morphology; their micropolarity and microfluidity were also evaluated. The proposed liquid crystalline nanosystems can be considered as novel and attractive pH-responsive drug and gene delivery nanocarriers due to their polycationic content. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Polymer/Lipid Membranes and Thin Films)
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Review

Jump to: Research

52 pages, 5880 KiB  
Review
Recent Advances in Hybrid Biomimetic Polymer-Based Films: from Assembly to Applications
by Agata Krywko-Cendrowska, Stefano di Leone, Maryame Bina, Saziye Yorulmaz-Avsar, Cornelia G. Palivan and Wolfgang Meier
Polymers 2020, 12(5), 1003; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12051003 - 26 Apr 2020
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 6385
Abstract
Biological membranes, in addition to being a cell boundary, can host a variety of proteins that are involved in different biological functions, including selective nutrient transport, signal transduction, inter- and intra-cellular communication, and cell-cell recognition. Due to their extreme complexity, there has been [...] Read more.
Biological membranes, in addition to being a cell boundary, can host a variety of proteins that are involved in different biological functions, including selective nutrient transport, signal transduction, inter- and intra-cellular communication, and cell-cell recognition. Due to their extreme complexity, there has been an increasing interest in developing model membrane systems of controlled properties based on combinations of polymers and different biomacromolecules, i.e., polymer-based hybrid films. In this review, we have highlighted recent advances in the development and applications of hybrid biomimetic planar systems based on different polymeric species. We have focused in particular on hybrid films based on (i) polyelectrolytes, (ii) polymer brushes, as well as (iii) tethers and cushions formed from synthetic polymers, and (iv) block copolymers and their combinations with biomacromolecules, such as lipids, proteins, enzymes, biopolymers, and chosen nanoparticles. In this respect, multiple approaches to the synthesis, characterization, and processing of such hybrid films have been presented. The review has further exemplified their bioengineering, biomedical, and environmental applications, in dependence on the composition and properties of the respective hybrids. We believed that this comprehensive review would be of interest to both the specialists in the field of biomimicry as well as persons entering the field. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Polymer/Lipid Membranes and Thin Films)
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