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13 pages, 293 KiB

Open AccessArticle

by Luyao Li

Religions 2025, 16(1), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010083 - 14 Jan 2025

This paper adopts a post-comparative approach to explore the concept of harmony in the Zhuangzi, moving beyond traditional comparative frameworks. It examines how Zhuangzian harmony offers a solution to the potential risks of domination that harmony may pose to individual freedom. It [...] Read more.

This paper adopts a post-comparative approach to explore the concept of harmony in the Zhuangzi, moving beyond traditional comparative frameworks. It examines how Zhuangzian harmony offers a solution to the potential risks of domination that harmony may pose to individual freedom. It first challenges Chenyang Li’s distinction between Confucian “active harmony” (主动和谐) and Daoist “passive harmony” (被动和谐), arguing that the “passive” label fails to capture the characteristic of Zhuangzian harmony. Instead, Zhuangzian harmony is better understood as “responsive harmony” (随动和谐), a unique form of harmony that is neither passive nor merely the opposite of Confucian active harmony. Responsive harmony shares similarities with active harmony, yet it offers distinct features that address certain challenges to harmony, such as the risk of domination, which Confucian harmony may not fully resolve. This perspective provides a fresh philosophical resource from Daoism for addressing contemporary concerns about harmony in ethical contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Going Beyond Comparative Ethics: Post-Comparative Ethics in Philosophic and Religious Traditions)

15 pages, 292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Westward Spread of Eastern Learning: Jung’s Integration and Adaptation of Religious Daoism

by Ming Chen

Religions 2025, 16(1), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010069 - 10 Jan 2025

Viewed by 388

Abstract

The impact and influence that a religious tradition can have amongst culturally out-group populations can be quite unexpected and can even “boomerang” back home in equally unpredictable ways. This article explores one example of a Chinese religion’s unexpected cultural influence within the Western [...] Read more.

The impact and influence that a religious tradition can have amongst culturally out-group populations can be quite unexpected and can even “boomerang” back home in equally unpredictable ways. This article explores one example of a Chinese religion’s unexpected cultural influence within the Western psychiatric community using religious Daoism and its appropriation by analytical psychologist Carl Jung. Although elements of religious Daoism, such as Daoist Internal Alchemy or the Yijing, integrated into a system of psychiatric practices, its influence was not straightforward. It will be argued that Jungian ideas such as active imagination, individuation, and synchronicity were directly influenced or inspired by Jung’s exposure to religious Daoism through Richard Wilhelm, Daoist texts, and his own adoption of Daoist Internal Alchemy techniques, an influence which would reverberate through both Western and Chinese popular culture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Going Beyond Comparative Ethics: Post-Comparative Ethics in Philosophic and Religious Traditions)

11 pages, 295 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rivers and Lakes: Zhuangzi’s Critique of Just War and the Zhuangzian War Ethics and Peace Strategy

by Ting-mien Lee

Religions 2025, 16(1), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010046 - 6 Jan 2025

Viewed by 392

Abstract

Just war theory, significantly shaped by Christian moral theology, has provided a prominent ethical framework for discussions on the justice of war. Numerous works have been published on classical Chinese counterparts, including passages from the Mengzi, Mozi, Xunzi, and Huangdi [...] Read more.

Just war theory, significantly shaped by Christian moral theology, has provided a prominent ethical framework for discussions on the justice of war. Numerous works have been published on classical Chinese counterparts, including passages from the Mengzi, Mozi, Xunzi, and Huangdi Sijing. Although the Zhuangzi frequently discusses warfare, it has been largely overlooked in this field of research because its war ethics do not revolve around any concept similar to that of justice. Based on Zhuangzian critiques of Confucian and Mohist views on justice, this paper tentatively reconstructs Zhuangzian war ethics. This reconstruction reveals a perspective that the concept of just war or justified war is inherently problematic, and promoting such ideas can be perilous and even morally questionable. The belief that just war theory can help us identify a “just side” to morally condemn or legally restrain aggressors is a dangerous illusion. In practice, this approach fails to prevent wars and often exacerbates conflict. According to the Zhuangzian perspective, during wars, states do not operate as traditional political entities with universal jurisdiction and centralized authority. Instead, they resemble rivers and lakes with indistinct boundaries, rendering the concepts of justice and punishment largely irrelevant. A practical peace strategy, therefore, must abandon the pursuit of administering justice and punishing wrongdoers. Instead, it should focus on strategies that facilitate the involved parties to “forget” their grudges and start their peaceful relationship anew. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Going Beyond Comparative Ethics: Post-Comparative Ethics in Philosophic and Religious Traditions)

19 pages, 368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Expanding Ethical Horizons: Rethinking the Ethics of De 德 and Guṇa in the Laozi 老子 and Bhagavad-Gītā

by Pritam Saha

Religions 2025, 16(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010035 - 1 Jan 2025

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Abstract

This paper aims to engage in an ethical discussion of de in the Laozi and guṇa in the Bhagavad-Gītā to expand the horizon of our ethical understanding of Chinese and Indian philosophy. First, this paper will explore the different ethical levels of de [...] Read more.

This paper aims to engage in an ethical discussion of de in the Laozi and guṇa in the Bhagavad-Gītā to expand the horizon of our ethical understanding of Chinese and Indian philosophy. First, this paper will explore the different ethical levels of de and guṇa and discuss how these levels operate and are bound together. From an ethical perspective, this paper points out that de and guṇa can each be divided into two parts—higher de and lower de, and higher guṇa and lower guṇa. It will further explain the ethical significance of de and guṇa, arguing that they offer a unique contribution to developing our contemporary understanding of ethics. We will also seek to discover the interplay of de and/with the dao in the Laozi and that among the three guṇas in the Gītā from the perspective of human behaviors. In the conclusion, we will provide a comparative discussion of our findings on the ethics of de and guṇa in the Laozi and the Gītā. These findings suggest that de and guṇa promote a shared philosophical outlook within their respective traditions and thereby make a contribution to post-comparative ethical approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Going Beyond Comparative Ethics: Post-Comparative Ethics in Philosophic and Religious Traditions)

13 pages, 264 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Human and World: Fichte and Wang Yangming on the Highest Good

by Jun Wang

Religions 2024, 15(12), 1450; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15121450 - 28 Nov 2024

Viewed by 538

Abstract

In comparative philosophy, the study of Fichte and Wang Yangming has been largely overlooked. This article compares their views on the highest good and their approaches to the human–world relationship. Fichte sees the highest good as the realization of practical reason, achievable through [...] Read more.

In comparative philosophy, the study of Fichte and Wang Yangming has been largely overlooked. This article compares their views on the highest good and their approaches to the human–world relationship. Fichte sees the highest good as the realization of practical reason, achievable through religious faith and love for God, enabling individuals to transcend sensual desires and unify with God. Religious faith connects individuals to a higher existence, fostering moral actions. Wang Yangming, however, defines the highest good as the manifestation of conscience within, emphasizing internal cultivation and moral practice to achieve the unity of knowledge and action. Fichte’s approach relies on religious faith, while Wang Yangming’s focuses on self-cultivation. This study reveals the complementarity between Chinese and Western perspectives on the highest good, offering a new lens for cross-cultural dialogue and insights into the complex relationship between humans and the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Going Beyond Comparative Ethics: Post-Comparative Ethics in Philosophic and Religious Traditions)

17 pages, 328 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Non-Duality of the “Conditioned” and “Unconditioned”: Hongzhou Chan Buddhism on Reconciling the Morality/Prudence Distinction

by Jacob Bender

Religions 2024, 15(9), 1064; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15091064 - 1 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1424

Abstract

This paper illustrates how Hongzhou Chan Buddhism provides valuable resources for dealing with issues in contemporary moral philosophy. In particular, when philosophers adopt the Hongzhou Chan Buddhist’s non-dualistic account of reality, we can see how their teachings provide us with important resources needed [...] Read more.

This paper illustrates how Hongzhou Chan Buddhism provides valuable resources for dealing with issues in contemporary moral philosophy. In particular, when philosophers adopt the Hongzhou Chan Buddhist’s non-dualistic account of reality, we can see how their teachings provide us with important resources needed for resolving philosophical problems that were originally undertaken by philosophers like the American Pragmatists John Dewey and Richard Rorty. When the pragmatists hoped to extirpate traditional metaphysics from moral philosophy, one of their focuses was on providing an alternative to the morality/prudence distinction. As this study illustrates, by overcoming the metaphysical dualism between the “unconditioned” and the “conditioned”, the Hongzhou Chan Buddhist can provide an account of compassion that is unconditionally grounded. Their account of compassion can then be understood as bridging the divide between “morality” and “prudence”. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Going Beyond Comparative Ethics: Post-Comparative Ethics in Philosophic and Religious Traditions)

13 pages, 287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Responsibility over Rules: A Confucian-Inspired Approach to Post-Comparative Ethics

by Paul D’Ambrosio

Religions 2024, 15(6), 699; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15060699 - 5 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1381

Abstract

As cultures become increasingly involved, attempts are made to find productive lines along which ethical understandings can be developed which respect diversity and yet go beyond simplistic comparisons. Much of the discussion in this area is squarely situated within existing religious or philosophical [...] Read more.

As cultures become increasingly involved, attempts are made to find productive lines along which ethical understandings can be developed which respect diversity and yet go beyond simplistic comparisons. Much of the discussion in this area is squarely situated within existing religious or philosophical frameworks—and these, in turn, are in the aggregate decidedly based on Western traditions. This paper proposes a philosophical-religious reading of Confucianism, especially with respect to its appreciation of ethical responsibility based on the importance of community, tradition, and norms, as a foundation for developing post comparative ethical approaches. The majority of the paper is centered on reading of responsibility in early Confucian texts which challenges the assumptions of contemporary academic philosophy (as practiced in classrooms, journals, and conferences) and fits into a decidedly Chinese way of thinking about religion that can be used to go beyond simplistic comparisons. This offers, in terms of both the approach being used and the specific content, an avenue for constructing post-comparative understandings of ethics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Going Beyond Comparative Ethics: Post-Comparative Ethics in Philosophic and Religious Traditions)

16 pages, 370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Harmonious Accommodation among Coexisting Multicultural Ethical Frameworks through Confrontation

by Yuchen Liang

Religions 2024, 15(5), 542; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15050542 - 28 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1383

Abstract

This paper interrogates the skepticism surrounding comparative ethics, particularly the question of its relevance in a world where ethical decision-making processes are primarily presumed to be dictated by one universalist culture. The paper argues that all cultures are inherently intercultural, evidenced by the [...] Read more.

This paper interrogates the skepticism surrounding comparative ethics, particularly the question of its relevance in a world where ethical decision-making processes are primarily presumed to be dictated by one universalist culture. The paper argues that all cultures are inherently intercultural, evidenced by the historical coexistence of ideas and practices. Post-comparative ethics, which emphasizes the situational application of intellectual comparison and integration, is inevitable for postcolonial, non-Western societies. Historically, societies have navigated a variety of ethical frameworks, with some, like medieval Chinese society, embracing a plurality of beliefs. This pluralism is exemplified by the harmonious accommodation (yuanrong 圓融) of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism. Using the example of Song Dynasty Chan master Dahui Zonggao 大慧宗杲, this article illustrates that intercultural ethics can be both diverse and sincere. Dahui’s pluralistic approach demonstrates that sincere commitment to multiple ethical systems is possible in our multicultural situation. I will discuss common approaches to the multicultural situation, such as expedient synthesis, theoretical synthesis, and crude syncretism, before illustrating the advantage of Dahui’s kanhua 看話禪method as harmonious accommodation through confrontation. This underscores the importance of shifting the debate from “Why compare?” to “How to compare?” in achieving the accommodation of different ethical frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Going Beyond Comparative Ethics: Post-Comparative Ethics in Philosophic and Religious Traditions)

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13 pages, 321 KiB

Open AccessEssay

Dao, the Godhead, and the Wandering Way: Daoism and Eckhart’s Mystical Theology

by Giovanni Nikolai Katzaroff

Religions 2024, 15(9), 1098; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15091098 - 10 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1181

Abstract

In popular discourse, it is not uncommon to highlight the distinctiveness of systems of “Eastern thought” (e.g., Daoism) in contrast to so-called “Western” systems. However, there is an interesting congruence between Daoism and Meister Eckhart’s mystical theology, particularly in regard to the concepts [...] Read more.

In popular discourse, it is not uncommon to highlight the distinctiveness of systems of “Eastern thought” (e.g., Daoism) in contrast to so-called “Western” systems. However, there is an interesting congruence between Daoism and Meister Eckhart’s mystical theology, particularly in regard to the concepts of the Dao and the Godhead. Like the Dao, the Godhead is the “ground” of all being, simultaneously radically transcendent and immanent, considered as distinct from all things and yet the enfolded totality of them. Both these concepts are also dynamic principles, continually manifesting in the flux of the ever-changing universe. In both systems, nature at its fundamental level is characterized by namelessness, emptiness, encompassment, and dynamism. Nature as “ground” is also a religio-ethical concept. Humans are called to align with this ground and enter into a state of wandering joy, called wuwei (non-action) in Daoism and the “wayless way” for Eckhart. Through reverting to their indeterminate source, the person is able to become detached from rigid teleological norms. Thus is laid the foundation for an ethics of non-attachment, wherein individuals dwell in an existential flow and are attuned to all yet anchored unquestionably to none. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Going Beyond Comparative Ethics: Post-Comparative Ethics in Philosophic and Religious Traditions)

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