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13 pages, 274 KiB

Open AccessArticle

“The Witch’s Mirror”: A Review of Scholarship on Witchcraft and a Reassessment Based on the Intersectional Lived Experiences of Dalits and Adivasis

by Jolanda Brunnekreef

Religions 2023, 14(3), 401; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14030401 - 16 Mar 2023

Viewed by 2099

Abstract

This article explores intersectionality of identities within Dalit and Adivasi traditions through a review of contemporary research on practices of witchcraft. Witchcraft practices occur all over the Indian subcontinent and form focal points of intersectionality beyond fixed structures and stereotypes. By approaching witchcraft [...] Read more.

This article explores intersectionality of identities within Dalit and Adivasi traditions through a review of contemporary research on practices of witchcraft. Witchcraft practices occur all over the Indian subcontinent and form focal points of intersectionality beyond fixed structures and stereotypes. By approaching witchcraft through the perspective of the lived experience of the ones involved, we gain better understanding of the individuals involved, of the larger socio-economic context and of the practice itself without falling into the trap of recasting stereotypes. By approaching witchcraft from the perspective of lived experience, it becomes clear that the occurrence of witchcraft is the outcome of complex intersectional power structures, such as gender, caste, class and religion/spirituality. However, the approach accomplishes even more by addressing diversity, ambiguity and dynamics within intersectional (power) structures. The knowledge drawn from the approach of lived experience of Dalits and Adivasis leads to new academic discourses such as ‘Dalit and Adivasi Studies’, ‘Critical Caste Theory’, ‘Dalit Feminism’ and the ‘Dalit Queer Movement’. These discourses provide new counter-hegemonic knowledge, adding to and challenging academia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersection of the Supernatural, Wondrous, and Identity in World Hindu Traditions)

10 pages, 220 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wonderland: The Image of Kāmarūpa in the Kālikāpurāṇa

by Karel R. Van Kooij

Religions 2023, 14(3), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14030311 - 27 Feb 2023

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Abstract

In the Kālikāpurāṇa, the mountainous region of Kāmarūpa (roughly present Assam) is described as a ‘Wonderland’ where Hindu gods and goddesses are present in the form of mountains, wells, stones and rivers, and where people become immortal and reach a divine status. Death [...] Read more.

In the Kālikāpurāṇa, the mountainous region of Kāmarūpa (roughly present Assam) is described as a ‘Wonderland’ where Hindu gods and goddesses are present in the form of mountains, wells, stones and rivers, and where people become immortal and reach a divine status. Death had no access there. The text, however, reports that after some time, all the sacred places in this region had been completely washed away by a flood of the Brahmaputra river. The gods disappeared. Wonderland became an ordinary land again, where people live and die. The way Kāmarūpa is described in this Purāṇa betrays the hand of a Brāhmin who accepted ‘correct’ Tantrism to some extent but preferred Vaiṣṇava standards. The relevant passages are translated anew and briefly discussed. The text itself is given the floor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersection of the Supernatural, Wondrous, and Identity in World Hindu Traditions)

28 pages, 3960 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Continuing Transformation: Śrī Nāth, His Gurus and His Devotees in a Timeless World

by Paul van der Velde

Religions 2023, 14(1), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14010111 - 12 Jan 2023

Viewed by 1443

Abstract

Śrī Nāth is one of the most important images of Krishna being worshipped at the temple of Nathdwara in Rajasthan. His devotees consider him to be a living god, he appears in their dreams, and according to their sayings they are in direct [...] Read more.

Śrī Nāth is one of the most important images of Krishna being worshipped at the temple of Nathdwara in Rajasthan. His devotees consider him to be a living god, he appears in their dreams, and according to their sayings they are in direct contact with him. Śrī Nāth, originally a local deity, is equated with the major Hindu god Krishna. However, while Krishna may be one of the most important gods in India, he is also ambiguous through his acts and words, if not bluntly unreliable. This double nature of Krishna is reflected in the cult of Śrī Nāth. There is an interesting interaction between Śrī Nāth (implying Krishna himself), the main gurus of his cult, i.e., Vallabha (Vallabhācārya) and the latter’s son and main successor Viṭṭhalnāth and his devoted disciples. At times, Śrī Nāth feels the need to stick to the official Brahmanical cult of the temple rituals, on other occasions, there is no problem in transgressing any given official rule. The same is true for the primary teachers, who are often put on par with Krishna himself or one of the celestials closely connected to him. Additionally, the disciples can apparently do anything in their frenzies. All of this reinforces the idea that this entire cult belongs to another world (alaukik). It is part of the everyday world (laukik) of Hindu India, but meanwhile, each and every rule can be ignored if the supernatural breaks through. Even the distinction between Hinduism and Islam at times simply does not seem to be of importance anymore. Muslims can become addicted to the passionate love for Krishna through the form of Śrī Nāth, so it is sometimes stated. Each and every partaker in the cult may share the visions of the initiated devotee, at times even without proper initiation. This all adds to the experience of the supermundane and supernatural in this particular cult. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersection of the Supernatural, Wondrous, and Identity in World Hindu Traditions)

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10 pages, 2150 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Smuggled Hinduism—From Dōgen’s Viewpoint

by Atsushi (Shōken) Hayakawa

Religions 2023, 14(1), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14010041 - 27 Dec 2022

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Abstract

The central question of this paper is what kind of view Dōgen had about Mazu. At first glance, this may seem completely irrelevant to the theme of this issue. In fact, however, Dōgen’s view points to a subtle relationship between Buddhism and Hinduism [...] Read more.

The central question of this paper is what kind of view Dōgen had about Mazu. At first glance, this may seem completely irrelevant to the theme of this issue. In fact, however, Dōgen’s view points to a subtle relationship between Buddhism and Hinduism in an interesting way. Dōgen seems to regard Mazu as an ambiguous figure, standing on the borderline between Buddhism and Hinduism. However, Dōgen’s intention was to save Mazu and keep him on the side of Buddhism. So how can Mazu be saved? To answer this question is to trace the fundamental boundary between Buddhism and Hinduism according to the outstanding Zen master. In this study we adopt the usual method of textual analysis. Our discussion proceeds in the following order. (The steps do not correspond exactly to the section breaks.) (1) First, the argument of a person called Senni is presented from Dōgen’s Bendōwa, where Dōgen severely criticizes him as a non-Buddhist heresy. At this step we will confirm that Senni is a Sāṅkhya theorist (hence, a Hinduist). (2) We take up a parallel to the above passage from Dōgen’s Shōbōgenzō, Chapter “Sokushinzebutsu”. It becomes clear that the true target of Dōgen’s criticism was Mazu, the great Chinese Chan master. (3) The above operation shows that Dōgen was trying to position Mazu as someone on the borderline between Hinduism and Buddhism. (4) We try to reconstruct from the text what in Senni angered Dōgen, or, in other words, from what he wanted to save Mazu. As a result, the borderline as seen by Dōgen will be visible to us. The main findings of this paper are as follows: (1) The mark that distinguishes Buddhism from Hinduism, according to Dōgen, is the presence of the never-ending Bodhi-mind. This is in fact what TSUNODA Tairyū suggested in his 1985 article. Dōgen implemented this idea as an endless loop of Bodhi-mind, which makes the goal unreachable. (2) The implicit object of Dōgen’s criticism is not the Japanese Tendai or the Darumashū, but Mazu, as HE Yansheng indicated in his 2000 book. The so-called Critical Buddhism movement began on the basis of a misunderstanding. The large amount of secondary literature that has resulted is also indirectly based on this error. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersection of the Supernatural, Wondrous, and Identity in World Hindu Traditions)

30 pages, 913 KiB

Open AccessArticle

‘Ka asi kasya asi, kalyāṇi?’ The Ambiguity of the yakṣas in the Araṇya Parva of the Mahābhārata

by Arjan Sterken

Religions 2023, 14(1), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14010037 - 26 Dec 2022

Viewed by 1354

Abstract

Supernatural entities are often described as ambiguous, but ambiguity is underdetermined and undefined. This article has a twofold goal: first of all, it constructs an ideal-type model for identifying and specifying ambiguity in supernatural beings; secondly, it examines the ambiguity of yakṣas in [...] Read more.

Supernatural entities are often described as ambiguous, but ambiguity is underdetermined and undefined. This article has a twofold goal: first of all, it constructs an ideal-type model for identifying and specifying ambiguity in supernatural beings; secondly, it examines the ambiguity of yakṣas in the Araṇya Parva of the Mahābhārata. This model for determining supernatural ambiguity utilizes five markers, which appear in either a positive or negative aspect: fulfilling or denying needs and desires; protecting or attacking humans; belonging to the same order as humansor rejecting this order; beautiful or hideous appearance; and living close by or far away from human communities. Four narratives are examined: the story of Nala and Damayantī, the First and Second War of the Yakṣas, and the story of the Drillling Woods. In all stories, each of the five markers are utilized to describe the yakṣas’ ambiguity. However, one should distinguish between ambiguity proper (when conflicting markers are present at the same time) verus ambiguity caused by the shifting of markers during a narrative. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersection of the Supernatural, Wondrous, and Identity in World Hindu Traditions)

24 pages, 17763 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Green Ganesha Chaturthi: The Ritualising and Materialising of a Green Hindu Identity and the Emerging of an Alternative Representation of Ganesha

by Deborah De Koning

Religions 2023, 14(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14010022 - 22 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2715

Abstract

With the world facing an ecological crisis, Hindus are challenged to reflect on the ways they impact their environment. The last few decades witnessed a rise of theological reflections on Hindu traditions—especially scriptures and concepts (not least by western scholars)—that advocate environmentally friendly [...] Read more.

With the world facing an ecological crisis, Hindus are challenged to reflect on the ways they impact their environment. The last few decades witnessed a rise of theological reflections on Hindu traditions—especially scriptures and concepts (not least by western scholars)—that advocate environmentally friendly perspectives. This stands in sharp contrast with the multiple examples of how Hindu ritual practices cause harm to the environment. Ganesha Chaturthi is a festival that due to the public element of immersion of Ganesha idols, has led to severe pollution of waterbodies. Because of the attention that has been paid to this lately, the festival now calls for ecofriendly alternatives. This article analyses how recently, environmental awareness is ritualized and materialized in the festival of Ganesha Chaturthi. For this, fieldwork was conducted during Ganesha Chaturthi in Chennai and Mumbai in 2022. The focus of the article lies on the ecofriendly material and ritual innovations of the festival—for instance the variety of Ganeshas made of biodegradable materials—and the dynamics of interaction with (alleged) traditions to validate a Green Hindu identity in general and the development of a Green Ganesha in particular. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersection of the Supernatural, Wondrous, and Identity in World Hindu Traditions)

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16 pages, 537 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Śaiva Happy Ever After: Viṣṇu as Pāśupata Ascetic—Studies in the Skandapurāṇa X

by Sanne Dokter-Mersch

Religions 2022, 13(12), 1163; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13121163 - 30 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1673

Abstract

The Skandapurāṇa is one of the many textual sources that narrates Viṣṇu’s manifestation myths. It tells the stories of Narasiṃha (Man-Lion), Varāha (Boar) and Vāmana (Dwarf) in its own distinctive way. The greatest innovation is the addition of thus far unprecedented sequels to [...] Read more.

The Skandapurāṇa is one of the many textual sources that narrates Viṣṇu’s manifestation myths. It tells the stories of Narasiṃha (Man-Lion), Varāha (Boar) and Vāmana (Dwarf) in its own distinctive way. The greatest innovation is the addition of thus far unprecedented sequels to the stories. Whereas Śiva played a minor role, or no role at all, in the narratives as they were known at the time of composition of the Skandapurāṇa, he becomes indispensable in the “afterlife episodes” of the manifestation myths. Each afterlife episode follows the same structure, in which Viṣṇu is unable or unwilling to give up his manifested form. He is liberated from it by Śiva, who subsequently grants Viṣṇu a boon as a reward for his deeds and devotion to Śiva. From a Śaiva perspective, the boons become grander each narrative: first, Viṣṇu receives the important cosmic task in the Śaiva universe of destroying the gods’ enemies, then he formally joins the Pāśupata Śaiva community by performing the Pāśupata observance, and finally, he reaches union with Śiva, i.e., liberation from the continuous cycle of rebirth, by performing another Pāśupata observance. By introducing “the principle of end weight”, I will argue that this radical, new identity of Viṣṇu is expressed at a strategic place in the narrative, viz. at the very end, which is the part that is remembered most vividly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersection of the Supernatural, Wondrous, and Identity in World Hindu Traditions)

13 pages, 281 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Posthuman Dharma: Enthiran 2.0

by Signe Cohen

Religions 2022, 13(10), 883; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13100883 - 22 Sep 2022

Viewed by 2223

Abstract

S. Shankar’s 2018 Tamil language science fiction film 2.0, the stand-alone sequel to his 2010 blockbuster Enthiran, presents a bleak vision of a near-present time when obsession with technology has led to deteriorating human relationships as well as destruction of the [...] Read more.

S. Shankar’s 2018 Tamil language science fiction film 2.0, the stand-alone sequel to his 2010 blockbuster Enthiran, presents a bleak vision of a near-present time when obsession with technology has led to deteriorating human relationships as well as destruction of the natural world. The film articulates a posthuman dharma founded on the understanding that humans have an ethical obligation towards all living things, not merely other humans. The film posits the individual as fractured and unstable but valorizes the interconnectivity of humans and non-humans, which is underscored by the film’s innovative evocation of the rasas of classical Indian aesthetics in the context of non-human agents. This essay argues that 2.0 presents a Hindu-inflected ecological posthumanism as the only viable alternative to a dystopian future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersection of the Supernatural, Wondrous, and Identity in World Hindu Traditions)

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