Resources

25 pages, 3341 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Waste Management in the Smart City: Current Practices and Future Directions

by Danuta Szpilko, Antonio de la Torre Gallegos, Felix Jimenez Naharro, Agnieszka Rzepka and Angelika Remiszewska

Resources 2023, 12(10), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12100115 - 26 Sep 2023

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 15674

Abstract

The discourse surrounding sustainability, particularly in the urban environment, has gained considerable momentum in recent years. The concept of a smart city epitomises the integration of innovative technological solutions with community-centred approaches, thereby laying the groundwork for a sustainable lifestyle. One of the [...] Read more.

The discourse surrounding sustainability, particularly in the urban environment, has gained considerable momentum in recent years. The concept of a smart city epitomises the integration of innovative technological solutions with community-centred approaches, thereby laying the groundwork for a sustainable lifestyle. One of the crucial components of this integration is the effective and innovative management of waste. The aim of this article was to classify scientific research pertaining to waste management within the context of smart city issues, and to identify emerging directions for future research. A systematic literature review, based on a bibliometric analysis of articles included in the Scopus and Web of Science databases, was conducted for this study. The purpose of such a systematic review is to identify, integrate, and evaluate research on a selected topic, using clearly defined criteria. The research query included: TITLE-ABS-KEY (“smart city” AND (waste OR garbage OR trash OR rubbish)) in the case of Scopus, and TS = (“smart city” AND (waste OR garbage OR trash OR rubbish)) in the case of the Web of Science database. A total of 1768 publication records qualified for the analysis. This study presents an investigation into the current and forthcoming directions of waste management in smart cities, synthesising the latest advancements and methods. The findings outline specific future research directions encompassing technological advancement, special waste challenges, digitisation, energy recovery, transportation, community engagement, policy development, security, novel frameworks, economic and environmental impact assessment, and global implications. These insights reflect a multifaceted approach, advocating a technology-driven perspective that is integral to urban sustainability and quality of life. The study’s findings provide practical avenues for cities to enhance waste management through modern technologies, promoting efficient systems and contributing to sustainable urban living and the circular economy. The insights are vital for policymakers and industry leaders globally, supporting the creation of universal standards and policies, thereby fostering comprehensive waste management systems aligned with global sustainability objectives. Full article

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33 pages, 4018 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessment of Energy and Heat Consumption Trends and Forecasting in the Small Consumer Sector in Poland Based on Historical Data

by Bożena Gajdzik, Magdalena Jaciow, Radosław Wolniak, Robert Wolny and Wieslaw Wes Grebski

Resources 2023, 12(9), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12090111 - 20 Sep 2023

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4254

Abstract

The paper outlines the methodology employed for desk-based research, which involved gathering and analyzing empirical data on energy and heating consumption in the Polish small consumer sector. Secondary sources, including reports, documents, scientific publications, and public statistics, were utilized to ensure a comprehensive [...] Read more.

The paper outlines the methodology employed for desk-based research, which involved gathering and analyzing empirical data on energy and heating consumption in the Polish small consumer sector. Secondary sources, including reports, documents, scientific publications, and public statistics, were utilized to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. The research methodology ensured the acquisition and examination of reliable and extensive data regarding energy and heat consumption among small consumers in Poland. The study investigated consumption trends of hard coal, electricity, and natural gas in Polish households from 2006 to 2021. The findings revealed an increasing pattern in electricity and natural gas consumption, alongside a simultaneous decline in the usage of hard coal. Future consumption was estimated using trend models, and factors contributing to changes in energy consumption patterns were examined, with forecasts to 2027. To achieve decarbonization and address climate objectives, the study underscores the need to increase the proportion of renewable energy sources and boost energy efficiency. The significance of reducing household energy consumption through enhanced insulation, smart energy management systems, and low-carbon alternatives is emphasized. Additionally, the study addresses Poland’s future energy plans as a proactive step toward decarbonizing the national economy. In summary, the study furnishes valuable insights into energy consumption trends and their determinants in the Polish small consumer sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Optimization of Energy Efficiency)

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33 pages, 3284 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Development of Wind Energy in EU Countries as an Alternative Resource to Fossil Fuels in the Years 2016–2022

by Radosław Wolniak and Bożena Skotnicka-Zasadzień

Resources 2023, 12(8), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12080096 - 17 Aug 2023

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4417

Abstract

The aim of this article is to present solutions related to wind energy in EU countries as an alternative to fossil fuels. This article is based on secondary information and statistical data regarding the development of wind power engineering in EU countries for [...] Read more.

The aim of this article is to present solutions related to wind energy in EU countries as an alternative to fossil fuels. This article is based on secondary information and statistical data regarding the development of wind power engineering in EU countries for the years 2016–2022. The main purpose of this paper is to analyze of the relations between the development of wind energy in European Union countries and GPD (gross domestic product) per capita and selected factors. The following hypotheses were formulated: H1—There is a statistically significant correlation between GDP per capita and the use of wind energy in European Union countries. H2—There is a relationship between the length of the coastline and the use of wind energy in European Union countries. H3—There is a statistically significant correlation between the attitude to uncertainty of the inhabitants of a given country and the use of wind energy in said country. The presented research results support all these hypotheses. The results of the research regarding H2 are as follows: in the case of northern European countries (Ireland and Finland) and the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), the development of wind power engineering in the study period was faster than could be inferred from the length of the coastline in these countries. Regarding hypothesis H1, it was concluded on the basis of the analysis that the involvement of countries in the development of wind power engineering is correlated with their wealth. The novelty of this paper emerges from its innovative approach to analyzing wind power engineering, its incorporation of cultural factors, its quantitative assessment of correlations, and its actionable policy recommendations. These elements collectively contribute to a comprehensive and impactful study that advances our understanding of wind energy adoption in the European Union. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series – Energy Resources: Past, Present and Future Role in a Circular Economy)

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17 pages, 7462 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

New Bioretention Drainage Channel as One of the Low-Impact Development Solutions: A Case Study from Poland

by Agnieszka Stec and Daniel Słyś

Resources 2023, 12(7), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12070082 - 10 Jul 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2093

Abstract

In recent years, as a result of intensive urbanisation, a significant increase in the surface of impermeable areas has been observed, which results in changes in the hydrological cycle of catchments. In order to counteract these changes, low-impact development (LID) solutions are increasingly [...] Read more.

In recent years, as a result of intensive urbanisation, a significant increase in the surface of impermeable areas has been observed, which results in changes in the hydrological cycle of catchments. In order to counteract these changes, low-impact development (LID) solutions are increasingly being implemented in urban catchments, including bioretention systems. Taking this into account, a new bioretention drainage channel (BRC) was designed, whose main task is retention, infiltration, and pre-treatment of rainwater. The pilot laboratory tests carried out on two BRC prototypes (K1 and K2) showed that the average rate of reduction of mineral-suspended solids from rainwater was 69% and 57%, respectively, for K1 and K2. Analysing the results of the research, it was found that the bioretention drainage channel is characterised by very high efficiency in removing petroleum hydrocarbons from rainwater, and the reduction rate of these pollutants for both the K1 and K2 channels was close to 100%. In turn, hydrodynamic studies carried out on the model of the urban catchment showed that the implementation of BRCs will reduce the peak runoff by more than 82%, and the maximum flow in the sewage network by 83%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Water and Energy Systems in the Buildings)

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20 pages, 1084 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Sustainable Valorisation of Peach and Apricot Waste Using Green Extraction Technique with Conventional and Deep Eutectic Solvents

by Marina Stramarkou, Vasiliki Oikonomopoulou, Margarita Panagiotopoulou, Sofia Papadaki and Magdalini Krokida

Resources 2023, 12(6), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12060072 - 12 Jun 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2394

Abstract

Worldwide, fruit processing industries reject high volumes of fruit waste, which represent rich sources of phenolic compounds and can be valorised through extraction, and then be reused for food, nutraceutical or cosmetic applications. In the present work, the optimisation of the recovery of [...] Read more.

Worldwide, fruit processing industries reject high volumes of fruit waste, which represent rich sources of phenolic compounds and can be valorised through extraction, and then be reused for food, nutraceutical or cosmetic applications. In the present work, the optimisation of the recovery of phenolic compounds from apricot kernels and pulp, as well as peach pulp, through the green method of ultrasound and microwave assisted extraction (UMAE) is performed. Prior to extraction, a drying step of the pulps is conducted using freeze, vacuum and hot air drying. Except for the conventional extraction solvents of water and ethanol:water, a deep eutectic solvent (DES) formed by choline chloride/urea, and a natural deep eutectic solvent (NaDES) from choline chloride with lactic acid, are used, something that presentsecological benefits. With the aim of discovering the optimum extraction conditions, different values of the parameters of extraction time, utrasonic power and solvent/dry solid ratio are examined, and a mathematical model is developed to correlate them to the extraction yield (EY). The phenolic compounds and the antioxidant activity are determined through UV-Vis spectroscopy and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). The results of the study demonstrated that the most effective solvent in the extraction of apricot kernels is ethanol: water; DES is more efficient in the extraction of apricot pulp and NaDES in the extraction of peach pulps, reaching EYs of 25.65, 26.83 and 17.13%, respectively. In conclusion, both types of fruit waste are proved to have a significant content of valuable compounds, and the use of DES in fruit by-product extraction is effective and seems to be a promising alternative. Thus, the unexploited amounts of waste can be valorised through simple techniques and innovative solvents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resource Extraction from Agricultural Products/Waste)

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26 pages, 11844 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A New Geosite as a Contribution to the Sustainable Development of Urban Geotourism in a Tourist Peripheral Region—Central Poland

by Maria Górska-Zabielska

Resources 2023, 12(6), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12060071 - 5 Jun 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1961

Abstract

The article presents a new geosite in a small provincial town in central Poland. It contains twelve Scandinavian erratic boulders from the area, deposited by the Pleistocene ice sheet about 130,000 years ago. The geotrail is equipped with three informative boards, a folder, [...] Read more.

The article presents a new geosite in a small provincial town in central Poland. It contains twelve Scandinavian erratic boulders from the area, deposited by the Pleistocene ice sheet about 130,000 years ago. The geotrail is equipped with three informative boards, a folder, and each boulder has its own identifier. The article also draws attention to petrographic types and types of erratic boulders among the collected boulders. Their basic dimensions, age, and source area are given. Specific features of rock morphology are discussed. Records of sub/inglacial processes, periglacial processes affecting the forefield of the melting ice sheet, and contemporary morphogenetic processes are also analyzed. The recipient/beneficiary of such information can be anyone who is sensitive to the beauty of abiotic nature, feels heir to the geological past of his region, or wants to broaden his horizons with knowledge from the ice age. The recognized and disseminated heritage of abiotic objects in nature through the transfer of expert knowledge has great potential to become an effective generator of sustainable socio-economic development of peripheral tourist areas. The paper presents in detail expert knowledge and specific examples of improving the quality of life with the creation of this geosite. The tool to be used here is geotourism; it deals with the study of geodiversity and the development of elements of abiotic nature to perform tourist functions in accordance with the principles of nature protection. It protects the geological heritage by effectively securing geosites, widely disseminating geological sciences, and promoting their educational and tourist functions. Full article

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22 pages, 2513 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Quality Assessment and Classification of Feedstock for Bioenergy Applications Considering ISO 17225 Standard on Solid Biofuels

by Giuseppe Toscano, Carmine De Francesco, Thomas Gasperini, Sara Fabrizi, Daniele Duca and Alessio Ilari

Resources 2023, 12(6), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12060069 - 29 May 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2554

Abstract

Biomass materials play a key role in the renewable energy market as they can serve as a suitable alternative to fossil fuels. However, the quality of the material entering bioenergy plants is often a cause of technical concern. Biomass quality assessment is crucial [...] Read more.

Biomass materials play a key role in the renewable energy market as they can serve as a suitable alternative to fossil fuels. However, the quality of the material entering bioenergy plants is often a cause of technical concern. Biomass quality assessment is crucial not only for energy characterization but also for environmental and operational aspects. The goal of this study is to characterize and classify the biomasses used by Italian power plants with reference to the quality classes stated by the ISO standard 17225:2021. A further objective is to verify the ability of the standard to classify heterogeneous and specific biomasses. In this study, more than 900 biomass samples were analyzed. The samples were collected from several Italian power plants with >5 MWe between 2010 and 2020, and the most important physical and chemical parameters were analyzed according to the international standards of reference. The results of the analyses were collected in a large dataset used for subsequent statistical analyses. Statistical analyses applied are Principal Component Analysis and Pearson correlation maps, which showed that the ash content is a fundamental and ideal parameter to assess the biomass quality. Results obtained demonstrate that herbaceous biomasses are of low quality mainly due to the high ash content; a relatively low ash content was found for woody biomasses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Energy Resources: Feedstock Quality and Bioenergy Sustainability—2nd Edition)

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26 pages, 9659 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Identifying Optimal Cell Size for Geodiversity Quantitative Assessment with Richness, Diversity and Evenness Indices

by Catarina Lopes, Zara Teixeira, Diamantino I. Pereira and Paulo Pereira

Resources 2023, 12(6), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12060065 - 26 May 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2095

Abstract

The importance of quantitatively assessing the spatial patterns of geodiversity, and their intrinsic relationship with biodiversity and the ecosystem services provided to society, has been signalized by several authors, due to the relevance of this information in territorial management, the planning of environmental [...] Read more.

The importance of quantitatively assessing the spatial patterns of geodiversity, and their intrinsic relationship with biodiversity and the ecosystem services provided to society, has been signalized by several authors, due to the relevance of this information in territorial management, the planning of environmental and conservation strategies. Within geodiversity method assessments, the grid system is the most widely used GIS spatial approach to calculate a geodiversity index. Preferred for its simplicity, it implies the fundamental decision of choosing the scale of the analysis, defined by the selection of cell size, determinant for the accuracy and correctness of the final maps. Although this topic has been occasionally approached by some authors within geodiversity assessments, there is no formal procedure for cell size selection. This is a key issue, and, in the scope of the present work, an empirical procedure to select optimal cell size(s) was tested on the national scale in Portugal, in lithology and geomorphology datasets. The quantitative method based on geodiversity indices was applied, using richness, diversity and evenness indices, in a hexagonal analytical grid, through eight cell dimensions. Several descriptive statistical parameters were analyzed, with particular emphasis on dispersion statistical measures. Optimal cell size corresponded to the minimum cell size, once dispersion values were significatively reduced or stabilized, and distributions from evenness and diversity indices were closer to symmetry, which provided more accurate results and higher spatial differentiation, although the final decision should always consider the main purposes of the analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geodiversity Assessment: What, Why and How?)

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28 pages, 5073 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Quantifying Geodiversity at the Continental Scale: Limitations and Prospects

by Paweł Wolniewicz

Resources 2023, 12(5), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12050059 - 17 May 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2345

Abstract

Geodiversity, defined as the natural range of geological, geomorphological, hydrological, and soil features, has been explored in a growing number of studies at different spatial scales. However, most research efforts have been directed at analysing geodiversity at a fine-scale. Here, an estimation of [...] Read more.

Geodiversity, defined as the natural range of geological, geomorphological, hydrological, and soil features, has been explored in a growing number of studies at different spatial scales. However, most research efforts have been directed at analysing geodiversity at a fine-scale. Here, an estimation of the geodiversity of the European subcontinent is performed using six available high-resolution global data sets that describe the diversity of selected features of the abiotic environment. Six maps representing geomorphological, geological, hydrological, hydrogeological, soil, and topographical diversity are compiled using the methods of centroid analysis and kernel density estimation. The present contribution identifies areas with high values of most geodiversity variables which were not previously studied, nor are included in the network of international geoparks. The study also shows that, although remote sensing images and digital elevation models allow one to grasp a significant understanding of geodiversity on the continental scale, fine-resolution and process-oriented geological data sets are required to further enhance the quality of large-scale geodiversity assessments. To ensure interoperability between studies, a consensus is necessary regarding the analytical methods, classification rules, standardised indices and dictionaries. Without this, comparisons of geodiversity evaluations across different scales and between distant study areas remain difficult. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geodiversity Assessment: What, Why and How?)

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15 pages, 1187 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Geosite Assessment and Communication: A Review

by Federico Pasquaré Mariotto, Kyriaki Drymoni, Fabio L. Bonali, Alessandro Tibaldi, Noemi Corti and Paolo Oppizzi

Resources 2023, 12(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12020029 - 13 Feb 2023

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3472

Abstract

This work is aimed at reviewing the current state of the art in geosite selection, assessment, and communication. We first highlight the main papers that have defined paramount concepts such as geodiversity, geoheritage, and geosites. We then delve into the theoretical principles and [...] Read more.

This work is aimed at reviewing the current state of the art in geosite selection, assessment, and communication. We first highlight the main papers that have defined paramount concepts such as geodiversity, geoheritage, and geosites. We then delve into the theoretical principles and guidelines that have been proposed over the last twenty years by researchers who have thoroughly illustrated how to individuate and assess geosites. In doing so, we illustrate notable field examples of applications of qualitative and quantitative assessments of geosites in places such as Serbia, India, Iceland, Ecuador, Sardinia (Italy), Egypt, Tasmania (Australia), and Brazil. The third part of this work is dedicated to illustrating a list (by no means exhaustive) of works that have tried to come up with innovative tools, strategies, and solutions to promote and communicate geosites. From our work, it appears that geosites can be extremely effective as fully fledged outreach tools capable of bridging the gap between Earth science and the lay public. Full article

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38 pages, 4128 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Framework for Assessment of the Economic Vulnerability of Energy-Resource-Exporting Countries

by Andrew Curtis and Benjamin McLellan

Resources 2023, 12(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12020027 - 8 Feb 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2942

Abstract

Energy security is widely examined from the perspective of energy import vulnerability, but it is less common to evaluate the vulnerability of energy exporters. This paper presents an assessment framework and quantitative scorecard for evaluating the economic vulnerability of countries with significant energy [...] Read more.

Energy security is widely examined from the perspective of energy import vulnerability, but it is less common to evaluate the vulnerability of energy exporters. This paper presents an assessment framework and quantitative scorecard for evaluating the economic vulnerability of countries with significant energy exports. The background research of various related conceptual frameworks distils useful insights from energy security, corporate risks, and general economic vulnerability. Carbon exposure, largely missing from related work, is introduced to the study in new factors to evaluate exporter vulnerability to increasing global action on climate change. A holistic view is taken of all energy resource exports as a novel approach, rather than focusing on individual fuels. The developed scorecard is used to provide case studies of five major global energy exporters with comparative analysis between countries and over time. Full article

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14 pages, 1008 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceConcept Paper

An Approach to Assess the Water Resources Reliability and Its Management

by Jakub Żywiec, Dawid Szpak, Izabela Piegdoń, Krzysztof Boryczko, Katarzyna Pietrucha-Urbanik, Barbara Tchórzewska-Cieślak and Janusz Rak

Resources 2023, 12(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12010004 - 3 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2636

Abstract

One of the factors limiting the possibility of the development of urban agglomerations is access to drinking water. Due to progressive climate change, the available water resources are limited. The paper proposes new indicators of limiting the development of agglomerations related to the [...] Read more.

One of the factors limiting the possibility of the development of urban agglomerations is access to drinking water. Due to progressive climate change, the available water resources are limited. The paper proposes new indicators of limiting the development of agglomerations related to the availability of water resources and the production capacity of water treatment plants, a method for assessing the diversification of water resources (using the Pielou index), and a water loss balance was prepared based on International Water Association (IWA) standards. On the basis of the obtained results, the potential increase in the number of inhabitants indicators (∆P_R, ∆P_P) and the time for the development of agglomeration indicators (T_R, T_P), the directions of development of the studied agglomerations in terms of the possibility of water supply were indicated. The main problems were reducing the amount of water losses, appropriate management of the migration policy of the population, and the necessity to look for alternative sources of water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Trends in Resources considering Sustainability, Economy, and Corporate Social Responsibility)

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21 pages, 1180 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

An Overall Perspective for the Study of Emerging Contaminants in Karst Aquifers

by Claudia Campanale, Daniela Losacco, Mariangela Triozzi, Carmine Massarelli and Vito Felice Uricchio

Resources 2022, 11(11), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11110105 - 17 Nov 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4067

Abstract

Karst aquifers are essential drinking water sources, representing about 25% of the total available sources globally. Groundwater ecosystems consist of fissured carbonate rocks commonly covered with canopy collapse sinkholes. The open nature of karst aquifers makes them susceptible to rapidly transporting contaminants from [...] Read more.

Karst aquifers are essential drinking water sources, representing about 25% of the total available sources globally. Groundwater ecosystems consist of fissured carbonate rocks commonly covered with canopy collapse sinkholes. The open nature of karst aquifers makes them susceptible to rapidly transporting contaminants from the surface in dissolved and particulate forms. The principal aim of this review is to contribute to filling the gap in knowledge regarding major concerns affecting karst aquifers and understanding their vulnerabilities and dynamics. The principal groundwater pollutants of relevance are detailed in the present work, including well-known issues, such as the input of agriculture and its role in water quality. Emerging pollutants such as microplastics, still poorly studied in the groundwater systems, were also considered. Case studies for each typology of pollutant were highlighted, as their relative concerns for karst environments. Final considerations underlined an approach for studying karst environments more focused on understanding dynamics and links among different pollutants inputs and their drivers than on individual sources and impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sustainable Resource Management)

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22 pages, 11239 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Geosite Assessment as a Tool for the Promotion and Conservation of Irpinia Landscape Geoheritage (Southern Italy)

by Michele Sisto, Antonio Di Lisio and Filippo Russo

Resources 2022, 11(10), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11100097 - 20 Oct 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3331

Abstract

Irpinia (Province of Avellino, Campania Region) is a historical–geographical region of Southern Italy inhabited in pre-Roman times by the ancient Samnite tribe of the Irpini, from which the name originates. This area is characterized by both low population density and high naturalness; located [...] Read more.

Irpinia (Province of Avellino, Campania Region) is a historical–geographical region of Southern Italy inhabited in pre-Roman times by the ancient Samnite tribe of the Irpini, from which the name originates. This area is characterized by both low population density and high naturalness; located on the axial sector of the southern Apennine orogenic chain, the area possesses a complex hilly and mountainous orography, with predominantly agricultural and forest land uses. In this geographical context, there are many relevant geological/geomorphological sites, witnessing a wide geodiversity attributable to complex geological evolution and relief morphogenesis. The extensive bio-geodiversity has thus led to widespread geotourism practices. Irpinia is favored for its beautiful landscapes, rich cultural heritage, and typical small towns, often enhanced by quality certifications; moreover, geotourism activities are often associated with other forms of sustainable tourism. Starting from this geographical framework, the article analyzes eight attractive geosites that represent the geotouristic value of the entire Irpinia area well. The analysis was conducted using well-known qualitative and quantitative assessment methods. The results obtained, emphasizing the salient aspects of geodiversity, can be used in planning the usability of the sites and, more generally, planning for the Irpinian landscape in a geo-ecotouristic sense. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geodiversity Assessment: What, Why and How?)

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20 pages, 1520 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Environmental Assessment of Wastewater Treatment and Reuse for Irrigation: A Mini-Review of LCA Studies

by Andi Mehmeti and Kledja Canaj

Resources 2022, 11(10), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11100094 - 13 Oct 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6140

Abstract

This paper provides an overview of existing LCA literature analyzing the environmental impacts of wastewater treatment and reuses, with irrigation as a process or scenario. Fifty-nine (n = 59) papers published between 2010 and 2022 were reviewed to provide insights into the [...] Read more.

This paper provides an overview of existing LCA literature analyzing the environmental impacts of wastewater treatment and reuses, with irrigation as a process or scenario. Fifty-nine (n = 59) papers published between 2010 and 2022 were reviewed to provide insights into the methodological choices (goals, geographical scope, functional units, system boundaries, life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) procedures). The results show that LCA research has steadily increased in the last six years. The LCAs are case-study specific, apply a process perspective, and are primarily conducted by European authors. The LCAs are mainly midpoint-oriented with global warming, acidification and eutrophication potential as the most common impact categories reported. Volumetric-based functional units are the most widely applied. The most commonly used LCIA models were ReCiPe and CML, with Ecoinvent as the most commonly used database and SimaPro as the primary LCA software tool. Despite the fact that these methods cover a wide range of midpoint impact categories, nearly half of the studies focused on a few life cycle impact category indicators. In many studies, the LCA scope is frequently narrowed, and the assessment does not look at the cradle-to-grave system boundary but rather at cradle-to-gate or gate-to-gate system boundaries. Regardless of technology or other system boundary assumptions, the design of environmentally efficient wastewater reuse schemes is primarily determined by the type of energy supplied to the product’s life cycle. Our findings highlight that more holistic studies that take into account the expansion of system boundaries and the use of a broad set of environmental impact categories, supported by uncertainty and/or sensitivity analysis, are required. The overview presented in this paper serves as groundwork for future LCA studies in the field of irrigation with treated wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reuse of Treated Wastewater in Irrigation: Exploring the Current Challenges and Opportunities through Life Cycle Thinking Tools)

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18 pages, 6876 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Implementation of Circular Business Models for Olive Oil Waste and By-Product Valorization

by Mechthild Donner, Ivana Radić, Yamna Erraach and Fatima El Hadad-Gauthier

Resources 2022, 11(7), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11070068 - 20 Jul 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5036

Abstract

Mediterranean olive oil producers have multiple incentives for adopting circular business models and better resource management, facing water scarcity and huge amounts of waste, but also seeing new opportunities for value creation. This article aimed to understand how circular business models valorizing olive [...] Read more.

Mediterranean olive oil producers have multiple incentives for adopting circular business models and better resource management, facing water scarcity and huge amounts of waste, but also seeing new opportunities for value creation. This article aimed to understand how circular business models valorizing olive oil waste and by-products are implemented. Ten business cases from six Mediterranean countries were studied, mainly based on semi-structured interviews with enterprise managers. Data were analyzed according to the business model canvas elements, success factors, and barriers while considering the institutional context. The results highlight the diversity of activities, types of resources used, and partnerships and products offered in different market segments. The principles of biowaste conversion and circularity, such as cascading, upcycling, recycling, and recovering, are all applied. The key success factors comprise an environmental concern, knowledge about biotechnologies, markets and logistics, a long-term commitment to the sector, local availability of resources, legislation, subsidies, and product acceptance by consumers. The main barriers include a lack of specific public financial support, an insufficient knowledge transfer from research to olive oil producers, and a lack of articulation of needs for research by the enterprises. More public-private collaborations and multi-stakeholder projects are needed for further shifting to a circular economy in the olive oil sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Valorization/Reuse of Agricultural or Agro-Industrial Waste in a Prospect of Circular Bioeconomy)

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16 pages, 1340 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Trends and Opportunities of Bivalve Shells’ Waste Valorization in a Prospect of Circular Blue Bioeconomy

by Daniela Summa, Mattia Lanzoni, Giuseppe Castaldelli, Elisa Anna Fano and Elena Tamburini

Resources 2022, 11(5), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11050048 - 13 May 2022

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 9989

Abstract

Bivalves aquaculture is already considered a very sustainable for of food production and might become an essential pillar on which to develop future global food security. However, with the increase in production, a correspondingly great amount of waste will be produced all around [...] Read more.

Bivalves aquaculture is already considered a very sustainable for of food production and might become an essential pillar on which to develop future global food security. However, with the increase in production, a correspondingly great amount of waste will be produced all around the earth, principally in the form of shells, which can represent up to 90% of the fresh mollusk weight. Nowadays, shell waste has no notable use and is commonly regarded as waste, often dumped in landfill, or thrown back into the sea, causing a significant level of environmental concern, and resulting in a loss of natural and valuable resources. Bivalve shells are mainly formed by CaCO₃, giving them the potential to become a promising secondary raw material for several applications, from a circular economy perspective. This paper aims to review the scientific literature of the last twenty years and the principal recent trends in shell waste reuse, describing applications that are already in place on a large scale in agriculture and livestock, soils, water and wastewater remediation, biodiesel production and biofilters, as well as niche applications that now simply have the potential to be scaled up. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Valorization/Reuse of Agricultural or Agro-Industrial Waste in a Prospect of Circular Bioeconomy)

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18 pages, 1144 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Key to Sustainable Economic Development: A Triple Bottom Line Approach

by Elisabete Nogueira, Sofia Gomes and João M. Lopes

Resources 2022, 11(5), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11050046 - 10 May 2022

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 10444

Abstract

Concerns about improving social, environmental, and economic living standards are the basis of the triple bottom line (TBL) link to economic development (ED). Aware of the importance of studying their relationship, this article analysed the influence of TBL on ED. A quantitative methodology [...] Read more.

Concerns about improving social, environmental, and economic living standards are the basis of the triple bottom line (TBL) link to economic development (ED). Aware of the importance of studying their relationship, this article analysed the influence of TBL on ED. A quantitative methodology was used. The sample comprised a panel of data from 2006 to 2019 for OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries. Five multiple linear regression models were estimated by the generalised method of moments. The results of this study revealed that the social dimension of TBL boosts ED, the environmental dimension of TBL slows down ED, and the economic dimension of TBL contains conflicting synergies in ED. The Human Development Index (HDI) should now include indicators of environmental wellbeing. Governments should adopt policies to improve social wellbeing to boost ED, work to coordinate the objectives of environmental protection and ED, and combat vulnerabilities arising from public debt. As one of the first studies to assess the influence of TBL on ED at the country level, the present findings contribute to the reflection about the influence of TBL on a country’s ED and strengthens the discussion around the influence of different dimensions of TBL. Full article

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16 pages, 2730 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of MWool^® Recycled Wool Fibers

by Isabella Bianco, Raffaella Gerboni, Giuseppe Picerno and Gian Andrea Blengini

Resources 2022, 11(5), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11050041 - 20 Apr 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 9883

Abstract

Textile industries are in the spotlight due to the heavy environmental impacts along their products’ life cycle and, at the same time, they are a priority sector in the new circular economy action plan of the European Commission. In this framework, the Italian [...] Read more.

Textile industries are in the spotlight due to the heavy environmental impacts along their products’ life cycle and, at the same time, they are a priority sector in the new circular economy action plan of the European Commission. In this framework, the Italian company Manteco SpA has developed a value chain based on the recycling of pre- and post-consumer discarded textiles, wh0se output is a secondary wool fiber named MWool^®. This study develops an environmental analysis of recycled wool fibers through the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology, mainly using primary data. A parallel LCA is developed of virgin wool fiber, mostly based on literature data. Sensitivity analyses have been carried out: (i) to capture the uncertainty associated with virgin fibers’ impacts and (ii) to evaluate how MWool^® impacts vary according to the origin and treatment of recycled textiles. Finally, the Circular Footprint Formula (CFF) has been applied to consider also a possible decay in quality typically affecting recycled fibers. Results show that recycled wool fibers have significantly lower environmental impacts than virgin fibers, even when the most unfavorable scenarios are considered. As climate change is concerned, 1 kg of MWool^® has a carbon footprint of 0.1–0.9 kg CO₂ eq., while producing virgin fibers releases 10–103 kg CO₂ eq. Using the CFF, it emerges that recycled wool fibers can save about 60% of the impacts of virgin fibers. This study contributes to filling data gaps regarding LCAs applied to the textile sector, which is more and more in the spotlight and needs to address these environmental issues. Full article

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16 pages, 356 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Residual Biomass: A Comprehensive Review on the Importance, Uses and Potential in a Circular Bioeconomy Approach

by Margarida Casau, Marta Ferreira Dias, João C. O. Matias and Leonel J. R. Nunes

Resources 2022, 11(4), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11040035 - 30 Mar 2022

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 6470

Abstract

The paradigm shift towards sustainable growth is urgent, and biomass, which is the oldest energy source that humans have used since the discovery of fire, might play an important role. Biomass waste from forestry and agriculture is expected to fuel part of the [...] Read more.

The paradigm shift towards sustainable growth is urgent, and biomass, which is the oldest energy source that humans have used since the discovery of fire, might play an important role. Biomass waste from forestry and agriculture is expected to fuel part of the increasing demand for biomass, and its valorization allows for more the efficient use of nutrients and resources. In this study, we carried out an extensive literature review on the valorization of residual agroforestry biomass since the 1970s to understand the leading research focuses on the subject over the last few decades, identify the most recent trends, and establish a possible solution path for the future of biomass. It was observed that most studies focused on biomass as being capable of replacing fossil energy sources. According to the literature, biomass has the most significant potential to meet requirements and ensure fuel supplies in the future. The developments of the last decades have significantly improved the conversion processes, leading to greener solutions, but there is still much to be studied and put into practice. Closing the loop into biomass waste recovery will be essential for a genuinely circular bioeconomy. Full article

18 pages, 10785 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Towards Transferable Use of Terrain Ruggedness Component in the Geodiversity Index

by Borut Stojilković

Resources 2022, 11(2), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11020022 - 14 Feb 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4500

Abstract

Geodiversity, as diversity of the abiotic environment, includes terrain ruggedness (or roughness), which is one of the essential parts of geodiversity evaluation. The terrain ruggedness index (R) represents the value of one of the main geodiversity components. The purpose of the study is [...] Read more.

Geodiversity, as diversity of the abiotic environment, includes terrain ruggedness (or roughness), which is one of the essential parts of geodiversity evaluation. The terrain ruggedness index (R) represents the value of one of the main geodiversity components. The purpose of the study is to discuss the characteristics of R in the scope of geodiversity, and to show how R differs within two specific study areas if we study them using a data scale that covers both areas and only site-specific data. Hence, the main methods include geodiversity element mapping, calculating R based on either the study area or broader-scale data and discussing the differences that arise. The findings show that R should not be calculated only within individual study areas if the results among different study areas are to be compared; rather, it should first be calculated on a larger scale for the whole region in which we are about to compare the specific study areas. The applied value of these results is that such data are then suitable for calculating the geodiversity index (G) according to specific methodological steps and for further analyses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geodiversity Assessment: What, Why and How?)

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26 pages, 5832 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Predicting Ice Phenomena in a River Using the Artificial Neural Network and Extreme Gradient Boosting

by Renata Graf, Tomasz Kolerski and Senlin Zhu

Resources 2022, 11(2), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11020012 - 26 Jan 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3234

Abstract

Forecasting ice phenomena in river systems is of great importance because these phenomena are a fundamental part of the hydrological regime. Due to the stochasticity of ice phenomena, their prediction is a difficult process, especially when data sets are sparse or incomplete. In [...] Read more.

Forecasting ice phenomena in river systems is of great importance because these phenomena are a fundamental part of the hydrological regime. Due to the stochasticity of ice phenomena, their prediction is a difficult process, especially when data sets are sparse or incomplete. In this study, two machine learning models—Multilayer Perceptron Neural Network (MLPNN) and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost)—were developed to predict ice phenomena in the Warta River in Poland in a temperate climate zone. Observational data from eight river gauges during the period 1983–2013 were used. The performance of the model was evaluated using four model fit measures. The results showed that the choice of input variables influenced the accuracy of the developed models. The most important predictors were the nature of phenomena on the day before an observation, as well as water and air temperatures; river flow and water level were less important for predicting the formation of ice phenomena. The modeling results showed that both MLPNN and XGBoost provided promising results for the prediction of ice phenomena. The research results of the present study could also be useful for predicting ice phenomena in other regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Water Resource Monitoring and Modelling: Water Quantity and Quality Issues)

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17 pages, 4071 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Application of New Hyperspectral Sensors in the Remote Sensing of Aquatic Ecosystem Health: Exploiting PRISMA and DESIS for Four Italian Lakes

by Mariano Bresciani, Claudia Giardino, Alice Fabbretto, Andrea Pellegrino, Salvatore Mangano, Gary Free and Monica Pinardi

Resources 2022, 11(2), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11020008 - 19 Jan 2022

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 5082

Abstract

The monitoring of water bio-physical parameters and the management of aquatic ecosystems are crucial to cope with the current state of inland water degradation. Not only does water quality monitoring support management decision making, it also provides vital insights to better understand changing [...] Read more.

The monitoring of water bio-physical parameters and the management of aquatic ecosystems are crucial to cope with the current state of inland water degradation. Not only does water quality monitoring support management decision making, it also provides vital insights to better understand changing structural and functional lake processes. Remote sensing has been widely recognized as an essential integrating technique for water quality monitoring, thanks to its capabilities to utilize both historical archive data for thousands of lakes as well as near-real time observations at multiple scales. To date, most of the applications developed for inland water have been based on multispectral and mid to coarse spatial resolution satellites, while a new generation of spaceborne imaging spectroscopy is now available, and future missions are under development. This review aims to present the exploitation of data gathered from two currently orbiting hyperspectral sensors (i.e., PRISMA and DESIS) to retrieve water quality parameters across different aquatic ecosystems, encompassing deep clear lakes and river dammed reservoirs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Water Resource Monitoring and Modelling: Water Quantity and Quality Issues)

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20 pages, 3901 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Carbon Footprint and Feedstock Quality of a Real Biomass Power Plant Fed with Forestry and Agricultural Residues

by Alessio Ilari, Daniele Duca, Kofi Armah Boakye-Yiadom, Thomas Gasperini and Giuseppe Toscano

Resources 2022, 11(2), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11020007 - 18 Jan 2022

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5410

Abstract

Phasing out fossil fuels to renewables is currently a global priority due to the climate change threat. Advocacy for biomass use as an energy source requires assessing the quality biomass and ecological impacts of bioenergy supply chains. This study evaluated the quality of [...] Read more.

Phasing out fossil fuels to renewables is currently a global priority due to the climate change threat. Advocacy for biomass use as an energy source requires assessing the quality biomass and ecological impacts of bioenergy supply chains. This study evaluated the quality of biomass residues from orchards and silviculture transported from different Northern and Central Italy locations and the carbon footprint of a biomass power plant. The total greenhouse emissions were calculated based on primary data for 2017 according to the ISO/TS 14067. All the residue samples showed their suitability for biofuel use. Ash content was relatively low on average (3–5% d.m.), except for grapevine residues (18% d.m.). The lower heating value was within the expected range of 15–21 MJ kg⁻¹ for plant species. The average GHG emission from the power plant was 17.4 g CO₂ eq./MJ of electrical energy, with the energy conversion (38%) and transportation of biomass (34%) phases being the main impact contributors. For this study, impacts of residual agricultural residue were about half that of residues from forest management, mainly due to chipping and greater transport distance. Results show that sourcing residual biomass materials for electricity generation close to power plants significantly reduce GHG emissions compared to conventional fossil fuels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Energy Resources: Feedstock Quality and Bioenergy Sustainability)

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