You seem to have javascript disabled. Please note that many of the page functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled.

Search for Articles:

Title / Keyword

Author / Affiliation / Email

Journal

Article Type

Advanced Search

Section

Special Issue

Volume

Issue

Number

Page

Logical OperatorOperator

Search Text

Search Type

The Relationship Between Safety Climate and Safety Performance in the Large-Scale Building Construction Industry in Ethiopia: A Structural Equation Model Using the NOSACQ-50 Tool
Study on Safety Culture Following the Implementation of a Near-Miss Management System in the Traditional Manufacturing Industry
Preliminary Safety Assessment of a Liquid Hydrogen Storage System for Commercial Aviation

Journal Description

Safety

Safety is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on industrial and human health safety published quarterly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), SafetyLit, and other databases.
Journal Rank: CiteScore - Q2 (Safety Research)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 37.2 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 5.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 1.7 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.1 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2313-576X

Latest Articles

18 pages, 479 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mitigating the Health Impairment Vicious Cycle of Air Traffic Controllers Using Intra-Functional Flexibility: A Mediation-Moderated Model

by Bader Alaydi, Siew-Imm Ng and Xin-jean Lim

Safety 2025, 11(3), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11030070 - 23 Jul 2025

Air traffic controllers (ATCOs) make a significant contribution to ensuring flight safety, making this profession a highly stressful job globally. Job demands–resources (JDR) theory proposes a health impairment process stemming from job demand (complexity) to mental workload, which causes job stress, resulting in [...] Read more.

Air traffic controllers (ATCOs) make a significant contribution to ensuring flight safety, making this profession a highly stressful job globally. Job demands–resources (JDR) theory proposes a health impairment process stemming from job demand (complexity) to mental workload, which causes job stress, resulting in compromised flight safety. This vicious cycle is evident among ATCOs and is recognized as an unsustainable management practice. To curb this process, we propose intra-functional flexibility as a conditional factor. Intra-functional flexibility refers to the flexibility in the reallocation and coordination of resources among team members to help in urgent times. This is a relatively new concept and is yet to be empirically tested in the ATCO context. ATCOs work in a dynamic environment filled with sudden surges of urgent jobs to be handled within short time limits. Intra-functional flexibility allows standby crews to be called to ease these tensions when needed. To ascertain the role of intra-functional flexibility in mitigating health impairment among ATCOs, a questionnaire was administered to 324 ATCOs distributed across Saudi Arabia. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) analysis exhibited two critical findings: First, the study revealed the prevalence of a vicious cycle of health impairment among Saudi ATCOs, whereby job complexity leads to increased mental workload, resulting in elevated levels of job stress. Secondly, the presence of intra-functional flexibility weakened this vicious cycle by mitigating the influence exerted by mental workload on job stress. That is, the mediation-moderated model proposed in this study provides empirical evidence supporting the applicability of intra-functional flexibility in mitigating the dire suffering of ATCOs. This study discusses limitations and future research directions in the end. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 1014 KiB

Open AccessReview

Pharmaceutical Packaging Materials and Medication Safety: A Mini-Review

by Yaokang Lv, Nianyu Liu, Chao Chen, Zhiwei Cai and Jianhang Li

Safety 2025, 11(3), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11030069 - 18 Jul 2025

Pharmaceutical packaging materials play a crucial role in ensuring the safety and efficacy of medications. This mini-review examines the properties of common packaging materials (glass, plastics, metals, and rubber) and their implications for drug safety. By analyzing 127 research articles from PubMed, Web [...] Read more.

Pharmaceutical packaging materials play a crucial role in ensuring the safety and efficacy of medications. This mini-review examines the properties of common packaging materials (glass, plastics, metals, and rubber) and their implications for drug safety. By analyzing 127 research articles from PubMed, Web of Science, and CNKI databases (2000–2025), we also discuss recent regulatory updates in China and highlight emerging technologies, including nanomaterials, sustainable packaging solutions, and intelligent packaging systems that present new opportunities for the pharmaceutical industry. Key findings include the following: (1) The physicochemical properties of packaging materials and potential microbial contamination risks during production significantly impact drug quality and safety, underscoring the need for enhanced research and regulatory oversight. (2) Each material exhibits distinct advantages and limitations: glass demonstrates superior chemical stability but may leach ions; plastics offer versatility but risk plasticizer migration; metals provide exceptional strength yet have limited applications; rubber ensures effective sealing but may release additives compromising drug quality. (3) The pharmaceutical packaging sector is evolving toward intelligent systems and sustainable solutions to address contemporary healthcare challenges. This review can aid pharmaceutical companies in selecting drug packaging and guide manufacturers in developing innovative packaging solutions. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

60 pages, 9590 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dealing with High-Risk Police Activities and Enhancing Safety and Resilience: Qualitative Insights into Austrian Police Operations from a Risk and Group Dynamic Perspective

by Renate Renner, Vladimir M. Cvetković and Nicola Lieftenegger

Safety 2025, 11(3), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11030068 - 18 Jul 2025

Special police units like Austria’s EKO Cobra are uniquely trained to manage high-risk operations, including terrorism, amok situations, and hostage crises. This study explores how group dynamics contribute to operational safety and resilience, emphasising the interconnection between risk perception, training, and operational practices. [...] Read more.

Special police units like Austria’s EKO Cobra are uniquely trained to manage high-risk operations, including terrorism, amok situations, and hostage crises. This study explores how group dynamics contribute to operational safety and resilience, emphasising the interconnection between risk perception, training, and operational practices. Interviews with current and former EKO Cobra members reveal key risk factors, including overconfidence, insufficient training, inadequate equipment, and the challenges of high-stakes scenarios. Using a structured yet thematically flexible interview analysis approach, the study adopts group dynamics theory as its framework and applies a semi-inductive, semi-deductive qualitative methodology. It examines risk categorisation in ad hoc operations, as well as the interplay between risk perception and training, proposing actionable strategies to enhance safety and preparedness through tailored training programmes. The findings underscore the transformative impact of intensive scenario-based and high-stress training, which enhances situational awareness and reinforces team-based responses through cohesion and effective communication. Group dynamics, including cohesion and effective communication, play a pivotal role in mitigating risks and ensuring operational success. Importantly, this research advocates for continuous, adaptive, and specialised training to address evolving challenges. By linking theoretical frameworks with practical and actionable insights, this study proposes a holistic training approach that promotes both resilience and long-term sustainability in police operations. These findings offer valuable guidance to elite units like EKO Cobra for broader policy frameworks by providing insights that make police operations safer and more effective and resilient. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 1760 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multilevel Spatial Framework for E-Scooter Collision Risk Assessment in Urban Texas

by Nassim Sohaee, Arian Azadjoo Tabari and Rod Sardari

Safety 2025, 11(3), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11030067 - 17 Jul 2025

As shared micromobility grows quickly in metropolitan settings, e-scooter safety issues have become more urgent. This paper uses a Bayesian hierarchical model applied to census block groups in several Texas metropolitan areas to construct a spatial risk assessment methodology for e-scooter crashes. Based [...] Read more.

As shared micromobility grows quickly in metropolitan settings, e-scooter safety issues have become more urgent. This paper uses a Bayesian hierarchical model applied to census block groups in several Texas metropolitan areas to construct a spatial risk assessment methodology for e-scooter crashes. Based on crash statistics from 2018 to 2024, we develop a severity-weighted crash risk index and combine it with variables related to land use, transportation, demographics, economics, and other factors. The model comprises a geographically structured random effect based on a Conditional Autoregressive (CAR) model, which accounts for residual spatial clustering after capture. It also includes fixed effects for covariates such as car ownership and nightlife density, as well as regional random intercepts to account for city-level heterogeneity. Markov Chain Monte Carlo is used for model fitting; evaluation reveals robust spatial calibration and predictive ability. The following key predictors are statistically significant: a higher share of working-age residents shows a positive association with crash frequency (incidence rate ratio (IRR): ≈1.55 per +10% population aged 18–64), as does a greater proportion of car-free households (IRR ≈ 1.20). In the built environment, entertainment-related employment density is strongly linked to elevated risk (IRR ≈ 1.37), and high intersection density similarly increases crash risk (IRR ≈ 1.32). In contrast, higher residential housing density has a protective effect (IRR ≈ 0.78), correlating with fewer crashes. Additionally, a sensitivity study reveals that the risk index is responsive to policy scenarios, including reducing car ownership or increasing employment density, and is sensitive to varying crash intensity weights. Results show notable collision hotspots near entertainment venues and central areas, as well as increased baseline risk in car-oriented urban environments. The results provide practical information for targeted initiatives to lower e-scooter collision risk and safety planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Road Traffic Risk Assessment: Control and Prevention of Collisions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 17269 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From FRAM Guidelines to Reality: Incorporating Stakeholder Variability in Work-as-Done in Healthcare

by Nienke M. Luijcks, Perla J. Marang-van de Mheen, Maarten J. van der Laan and Jop Groeneweg

Safety 2025, 11(3), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11030066 - 11 Jul 2025

Background: The Functional Resonance Analysis Method (FRAM) analyses discrepancies between written protocols (Work-as-Imagined) and real-world practice (Work-as-Done) in healthcare. Work-as-Done is created based on multiple stakeholders, leading to variability in reported functions. No guidance exists how to manage this variability. This study examines [...] Read more.

Background: The Functional Resonance Analysis Method (FRAM) analyses discrepancies between written protocols (Work-as-Imagined) and real-world practice (Work-as-Done) in healthcare. Work-as-Done is created based on multiple stakeholders, leading to variability in reported functions. No guidance exists how to manage this variability. This study examines between-stakeholder variation in Work-as-Done and its impact on differences from Work-as-Imagined in FRAM visualisations. Methods: Two FRAM studies were analysed: delirium diagnosis and treatment (1) and perioperative anticoagulant management in two hospitals (2). Heatmaps visualised between-stakeholder variability of reported functions in Work-as-Done. We assessed the impact of including only functions shared by multiple stakeholders on Work-as-Imagined versus Work-as-Done comparisons. Results: In study 1, 23 of 33 functions were shared among at least two stakeholders. In study 2, stakeholders shared 30 of 33 functions in Hospital 1 and 29 of 32 functions in Hospital 2. Including or excluding functions, e.g., only mentioned by one stakeholder, influenced the observed differences between Work-as-Imagined and Work-as-Done. Conclusions: Between-stakeholder variability in both studies influenced differences between Work-as-Imagined and Work-as-Done, which often is the starting point improving the process. Showing between-stakeholder variability in FRAM studies enhances transparency in researcher decision-making. This supports more informed analysis and discussion in process improvement efforts. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 285 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Violence in the Workplace Towards Pharmacists Working in Different Settings in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Faten Alhomoud, Deemah Altalhah, Maram Al jabir, Teef Alshammari, Khalid A. Alamer, Farah Kais Alhomoud, Mohammed M. Alsultan, Yousef Saeed Alqarni, Bashayer Alshehail and Fahad Alsulami

Safety 2025, 11(3), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11030065 - 8 Jul 2025

Workplace violence (WPV) is a prevailing global concern among healthcare providers (HCPs). Pharmacists may be more vulnerable to WPV than other HCPs due to being the most trusted, approachable, and accessible healthcare workers. However, in Saudi Arabia, there is little research on violence [...] Read more.

Workplace violence (WPV) is a prevailing global concern among healthcare providers (HCPs). Pharmacists may be more vulnerable to WPV than other HCPs due to being the most trusted, approachable, and accessible healthcare workers. However, in Saudi Arabia, there is little research on violence in the workplace among pharmacists working in different sectors. This is a cross-sectional survey study. An online survey was adopted from previous studies and distributed to a convenience sample of pharmacists by email and social media using a link to a web-based survey platform in QuestionPro. SPSS 28 was used for analysis. Logistic regression was employed to assess the association between WPV exposure and the participants’ characteristics. Three hundred and nineteen pharmacists participated in the study. A total of 156 (48.9%) reported exposure to workplace violence. Most participants had experienced verbal abuse (39.7%). Most offenders were male (84.6%), and aged 21–45 years (66.7%). Common causes included lack of a penalty (13.3%), and absence of reporting systems (11.4%). Seventy-eight percent of participants reported that the violence affected them negatively, leading to hopelessness (19.7%), and decreased work performance and productivity (15.1%). Logistic regression indicated that working as a staff (OR: 3.165; 95% CI 1.118–8.96, p = 0.030), working evening or night shift (OR: 2.4456; 95% CI 1.340–4.503, p = 0.004), and lacking procedure for reporting the violence (OR: 0.412; 95% CI 0.236–0.717, p = 0.002) were more likely to be victim of workplace violence than their counterparts. In Saudi Arabia, the risk of WPV events occurrence among pharmacists is high. The findings can guide the creation of appropriate policies, actions, and safety procedures to prevent and address WPV against pharmacists. Full article

43 pages, 2678 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Designing a Short Disaster Risk Reduction Course for Primary Schools: An Experimental Intervention and Comprehensive Evaluation in Hue City, Vietnam

by Ngoc Chau Mai and Takaaki Kato

Safety 2025, 11(3), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11030064 - 3 Jul 2025

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) education is considered increasingly necessary, particularly for children. DRR educational interventions aim to enhance knowledge and attitudes related to self-protective capacity. However, comparative studies on students in areas prone to different disasters and comprehensive criteria covering both knowledge and [...] Read more.

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) education is considered increasingly necessary, particularly for children. DRR educational interventions aim to enhance knowledge and attitudes related to self-protective capacity. However, comparative studies on students in areas prone to different disasters and comprehensive criteria covering both knowledge and attitudes toward behavior remain limited. A short DRR course was developed for primary schools across three regions (mountainous, low-lying, and coastal) in Hue City, one of Vietnam’s most vulnerable areas to extreme weather events. This study aimed to comprehensively evaluate student performance by applying Bloom’s taxonomy and treatment-control pre-post-follow-up design with panel analysis methods. From December 2022 to September 2023, three surveys, involving 517 students each, were conducted in six schools (three schools received the course and surveys, while the other three only participated in surveys). The intervention revealed similarities and differences between the groups. The course positively impacted on some elements of knowledge and preparedness intentions in students from low-lying and mountainous regions (including ethnic minorities). Higher-grade students in the mountainous region showed improvement in intentions, but not in attitudes toward self-protection. No gender differences in intentions were found. Although limited overall improvements, the study’s various methods, approaches and continuous assessment can be applied globally to design, implement, and assess DRR education courses effectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Navigating the Complexity of Natural Hazards and Disasters: Research, Preparedness and Mitigation)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 1798 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Simulation Sickness in Virtual Reality Pedestrian Scenarios: Effects of Gender, Exposure, and User Perceptions

by Tarek Abu Selo, Zahid Hussain, Qinaat Hussain, Wael Alhajyaseen, Shimaa Al-Quradaghi and Mohammed Yousef Alqaradawi

Safety 2025, 11(3), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11030063 - 2 Jul 2025

Simulation sickness (SS) remains a challenge in virtual reality (VR) applications, especially in pedestrian safety research. This study investigates SS symptoms in VR environments, focusing on gender differences, exposure time, and user perceptions. A total of 145 participants were exposed to two VR [...] Read more.

Simulation sickness (SS) remains a challenge in virtual reality (VR) applications, especially in pedestrian safety research. This study investigates SS symptoms in VR environments, focusing on gender differences, exposure time, and user perceptions. A total of 145 participants were exposed to two VR pedestrian scenarios: a crosswalk and a sidewalk. The Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) was used to assess symptoms of nausea, oculomotor disturbance, and disorientation. Results showed that female participants reported significantly higher SS symptoms than males, with the sidewalk scenario inducing greater overall SS. Additionally, perceived realism in the VR environment was associated with reduced symptoms, while perceived disengagement led to increased discomfort. These findings highlight the importance of user perceptions in mitigating SS and suggest that VR scenarios should be designed with attention to gender differences and environmental realism to improve user experience and safety. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 650 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence and Nature of Ergonomic Hazards Among Construction Workers in India: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Syed Mohammad Fauzan Akhtar, Neha Mumtaz and Abdur Raheem Khan

Safety 2025, 11(3), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11030062 - 20 Jun 2025

(1) Background: Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) are a major occupational health concern in the construction industry owing to the physically demanding tasks and poor ergonomic conditions present. Limited data exist on the prevalence of WMSDs and their ergonomic determinants among construction workers in [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) are a major occupational health concern in the construction industry owing to the physically demanding tasks and poor ergonomic conditions present. Limited data exist on the prevalence of WMSDs and their ergonomic determinants among construction workers in India. This study investigated the prevalence of work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) and the associated ergonomic risk factors among construction workers in India. (2) Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted among 250 construction workers in India. Data on musculoskeletal disorders were collected using the Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire (NMQ), and ergonomic risk was assessed using the Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA) tool. Logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with WMSDs, and Spearman’s correlation was used to assess the relationship between the REBA scores and the number of affected body regions. (3) Results: The prevalence of WMSDs was 60.4%. The most affected regions were the lower back (48%), knees (45%), shoulders (40%), and the neck (30%). The REBA scores indicated that 60% of the workers were at high or very high ergonomic risk and 30% at medium risk. Workers in the high/very high-risk category had significantly higher odds of developing WMSDs (OR = 4.5, 95% CI: 1.8–11.2, p = 0.001). Age above 40 years was also significantly associated with WMSDs (OR = 3.5, 95% CI: 1.2–10.2, p = 0.02). (4) Conclusions: This study demonstrated a high prevalence of WMSDs among Indian construction workers and established a clear association with poor ergonomic conditions. Targeted ergonomic interventions, including posture improvement, tool redesign, and safety training, are essential for reducing the risk of WMSDs in this population. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 2434 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Navigating Risks and Realities: Understanding Motorbike Taxi Usage and Safety Strategies in Yaoundé and Douala (Cameroon)

by Abdou Kouomoun, Salifou Ndam, Jérôme Chenal and Armel Kemajou

Safety 2025, 11(2), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11020061 - 19 Jun 2025

Motorbike taxis are widely used in Yaoundé and Douala, despite their association with heightened accident risks and relatively high fares. This research combines qualitative methods, including 38 semi-structured interviews and direct field observations, with a quantitative survey of 280 motorbike taxi passengers (customers). [...] Read more.

Motorbike taxis are widely used in Yaoundé and Douala, despite their association with heightened accident risks and relatively high fares. This research combines qualitative methods, including 38 semi-structured interviews and direct field observations, with a quantitative survey of 280 motorbike taxi passengers (customers). It employs a dynamic risk approach to analyse both the factors motivating individuals to choose motorbike taxis and the strategies adopted by drivers and passengers to mitigate and prevent accidents. The findings reveal that speed, cost-effectiveness, and the limited accessibility of certain neighbourhoods to other transport options are key factors driving regular motorbike taxi use. Moreover, strategies for managing accident risks include regulating passenger positions based on gender, perceived age, or physical stature; invoking deities for protection; and passengers’ verbal interactions with drivers to ensure safer behaviour. This research also explores how overloading, a collectively tolerated deviance, is managed to avoid or minimize the impact of accidents. By addressing both risk acceptance and prevention strategies, this study provides new insights into passengers’ social perceptions, which are often overlooked in motorbike taxi research. It expands the understanding of motorbike taxi use in urban Global South transport contexts, particularly in terms of users’ risk management behaviours. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 5362 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Accident Analysis Modeling and Case Study of Hydrogen Refueling Station Using Root Cause Analysis (RCA)

by Il Jae Lee, A Ran Lee and Kyung-Sun Lee

Safety 2025, 11(2), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11020060 - 19 Jun 2025

As the global transition to carbon neutrality accelerates, hydrogen energy has emerged as a key alternative to fossil fuels due to its potential to reduce carbon emissions. Many countries, including Korea, are constructing hydrogen refueling stations; however, safety concerns persist due to accidents [...] Read more.

As the global transition to carbon neutrality accelerates, hydrogen energy has emerged as a key alternative to fossil fuels due to its potential to reduce carbon emissions. Many countries, including Korea, are constructing hydrogen refueling stations; however, safety concerns persist due to accidents caused by equipment failures and human errors. While various accident analysis models exist, the application of the root cause analysis (RCA) technique to hydrogen refueling station accidents remains largely unexplored. This study develops an RCA modeling map specifically for hydrogen refueling stations to identify not only direct and indirect causes of accidents, but also root causes, and applies it to actual accident cases to provide basic data for identifying the root causes of future hydrogen refueling station accidents. The RCA modeling map developed in this study uses accident cause investigation data from accident investigation reports over the past five years, which include information on the organizational structure and operational status of hydrogen refueling stations, as well as the RCA handbook. The primary defect sources identified were equipment defect, personal defect, and other defects. The problem categories, which were the substructures of the primary defect source “equipment defect,” consisted of four categories: the equipment design problem, the equipment installation/fabrication problem, the equipment reliability program problem, and the equipment misuse problem. Additionally, the problem categories, which were the substructures of the primary defect source “personal defect,” consisted of two categories: the company employee problem and the contract employee problem. The problem categories, which were the substructures of the primary defect source “other defects,” consisted of three categories: sabotage/horseplay, natural phenomena, and other. Compared to existing accident investigation reports, which identified only three primary causes, the RCA modeling map revealed nine distinct causes, demonstrating its superior analytical capability. In conclusion, the proposed RCA modeling map provides a more systematic and comprehensive approach for investigating accident causes at hydrogen refueling stations, which could significantly improve safety practices and assist in quickly identifying root causes more efficiently in future incidents. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 2394 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Safety Performance in UK Metal Manufacturing: A Revised Framework to Reduce Fatal Accidents

by Alexandra Eggleston, Shoaib Sarfraz, Konstantinos Salonitis, Sumit Gupta, Hana Trollman and Sandeep Jagtap

Safety 2025, 11(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11020059 - 18 Jun 2025

Fatal accidents in UK’s manufacturing sector are expected to remain the same or increase in coming years. This paper has tried to combat this issue by adapting and further developing a previously defined Safety Framework for the Paint Sector, to evaluate the safety [...] Read more.

Fatal accidents in UK’s manufacturing sector are expected to remain the same or increase in coming years. This paper has tried to combat this issue by adapting and further developing a previously defined Safety Framework for the Paint Sector, to evaluate the safety performance of a metal manufacturing facility. To achieve this, the original Safety Framework was updated to align with the current British safety legislation outlined by the British Standards Institution. The framework was based on a three-level multi-attribute value theory (MAVT). Upon reviewing BSI 45001, the Safety Framework was founded upon the concept of Deming’s Plan, Do, Check, Act (PDCA) which is the foundation for the original framework, therefore, the first-level attributes remained consistent. The 13 attributes of the second level and 36 attributes of the third level were derived from the literature review and updated to relevant legislation. To develop the Safety Framework, the Delphi method was used. This included interviews that were conducted with employees and managers from either a Safety or Engineering background. The second part of the paper involved the improvement of the Safety Framework, based on the interview feedback. The main findings of the study revealed that the final Safety Framework has been deemed relevant for the Metal Manufacturing Sector by Industry Suitably Qualified and Experienced Personnel (SQEP). The majority of Interviewees deemed the Safety Framework to have a clear layout and easy to understand. The interviews and final Safety Framework suggested the importance of a company’s emphasis on employee welfare and health, in order to reduce accidents in the workplace. The originality of this paper lies in its application and validation of a sector-specific safety framework, contributing to the body of knowledge by offering a replicable methodology for adapting safety frameworks to other manufacturing sectors. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1176 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Suppression Performance Information in Judging When to Use a Fire Extinguisher

by Justin W. Bonny and Micah D. Russell

Safety 2025, 11(2), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11020058 - 18 Jun 2025

The ability of a fire extinguisher to suppress fires varies by the rated performance of the unit. Safety guidance in the United States indicates that the occupant should consider the performance rating of the extinguisher when deciding to use it with a fire. [...] Read more.

The ability of a fire extinguisher to suppress fires varies by the rated performance of the unit. Safety guidance in the United States indicates that the occupant should consider the performance rating of the extinguisher when deciding to use it with a fire. The present study investigated whether individuals are aware of the connection between the suppression performance of fire extinguishers and the intensity of fires the unit can extinguish. Across five experiments, participants were presented with fire extinguishers that varied in suppression performance (smaller, medium, and larger) and judged whether the extinguisher could extinguish a developing room fire that increased in intensity. The fire intensity at which they stopped attempting to use the extinguisher (threshold) was calculated. No significant differences in threshold were observed by suppression performance condition when suppression information about the single extinguisher at hand was presented. This included when information was provided about the amount of agent, the distance and duration of discharge, and with the water equivalent the extinguisher was rated. However, when trained on the differences in suppression performance between extinguishers and provided with corresponding containers of water, thresholds did vary by performance rating. We discuss how providing information about variations in suppression performance may be necessary to highlight differences in extinguisher ratings. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 496 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Errors in Clinical Practice and Organizational Constraints: The Role of Leadership in Improving Patients’ Safety

by Eleonora Moraca, Francesco Zaghini, Jacopo Fiorini and Alessandro Sili

Safety 2025, 11(2), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11020057 - 17 Jun 2025

Background: Organizational constraints in healthcare organizations influence nursing performance and patient outcomes. Head nurses’ leadership style might mitigate these effects and improve patient safety. This study aims to evaluate the role of ethical and authentic leadership styles in the relationship between organizational constraints [...] Read more.

Background: Organizational constraints in healthcare organizations influence nursing performance and patient outcomes. Head nurses’ leadership style might mitigate these effects and improve patient safety. This study aims to evaluate the role of ethical and authentic leadership styles in the relationship between organizational constraints and errors. Methods: A nationwide multicenter cross-sectional study evaluated nurses’ organizational constraints, errors, and leadership styles. A structural equation model tested the hypothesized relationship. Results: In total, 2349 nurses working in Italian healthcare organizations were enrolled. Negative associations were found between organizational constraints and leadership styles, and a positive relation with errors. Errors were negatively associated with both leadership styles. The structural equation model showed that leadership styles partially mediated the relationship between organizational constraints and errors. Conclusion: Healthcare organizations should promote and support head nurses in the adoption of ethical and authentic leadership to mediate organizational constraint effects, reduce errors, and enhance the caring quality. The head nurse plays a crucial role within healthcare organizations in mitigating the impact of organizational constraints and enhancing patient safety. Developing a leadership style means improving nurses’ well-being and reducing clinical errors for patients. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

37 pages, 2502 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Framework for Implementing Safety-I and Safety-II Principles in Aviation Safety Management

by Hyun Woo No and Woo Chang Cha

Safety 2025, 11(2), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11020056 - 16 Jun 2025

Despite advanced aviation safety systems, recurring operational failures demonstrate that current safety management system (SMS) implementation practices remain predominantly reactive, with organizations adopting SMS frameworks theoretically embracing Safety-II philosophy while continuing Safety-I-oriented reactive management. This study develops an integrated framework for implementing both [...] Read more.

Despite advanced aviation safety systems, recurring operational failures demonstrate that current safety management system (SMS) implementation practices remain predominantly reactive, with organizations adopting SMS frameworks theoretically embracing Safety-II philosophy while continuing Safety-I-oriented reactive management. This study develops an integrated framework for implementing both Safety-I and Safety-II principles in aviation safety management, addressing the gap between SMS theoretical requirements and actual implementation. Using the HEAR (human error analysis and reduction) framework, we analyzed three representative aviation cases involving FMS operation, turbulence response, and aircraft energy management through a qualitative multiple-case study design. Data collection utilized internal safety reports, official investigation reports, and reconstructed operational scenarios. The analysis employed a four-phase approach integrating predetermined categorization with inductive pattern recognition. Results revealed that 87% of all causes were organizational factors—6.7 times higher than individual/task factors (13%)—yet safety management responses primarily target individual behaviors. We defined “flight crew’s resilient behavior” and developed implementation guidelines by integrating the HEAR framework with the LPAC (learn, plan, adapt, coordinate) model and PAM (pressures, adaptations, and manifestations) framework. Effectiveness evaluation demonstrated a transition from 54 discrete contributing factors to 19 systematically related factors with clearer implementation pathways. Our integrated framework enables organizations to systematically implement both Safety-I analytical capabilities and Safety-II adaptive responses, transforming safety management from reactive “failure prevention” to proactive “success expansion”. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aviation Safety—Accident Investigation, Analysis and Prevention)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 5318 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding Spatial–Temporal Patterns in Trespassing on Railway Property

by Silvestar Grabušić, Danijela Barić and Stefano Ricci

Safety 2025, 11(2), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11020055 - 11 Jun 2025

Trespassing on railway tracks is a growing problem in rail transport, with multiple causal factors, including increasing urbanisation, high-frequency rail traffic, higher volumes of traffic, etc. The predominant factor is human behaviour (lack of knowledge about trespassing, poor decision-making by road users and [...] Read more.

Trespassing on railway tracks is a growing problem in rail transport, with multiple causal factors, including increasing urbanisation, high-frequency rail traffic, higher volumes of traffic, etc. The predominant factor is human behaviour (lack of knowledge about trespassing, poor decision-making by road users and others). This research aims to analyse the available data to determine the frequency, patterns, and factors contributing to trespassing on railway tracks and to identify potential locations with the highest recorded trespassing. This is achieved by conducting a case study using data from various sources on trespassing from 2001 to 2023 on the Italian railway network. The methodology of this study consists of data collection on trespassing, data cleaning, and three-step analysis (description of variables used, and application of R programming language for descriptive statistics, correlation, and association analysis). The outcome of this study is the description of the data collecting process of trespassing on the Italian railway network, the identification of temporal factors, e.g., month, day, and hour of trespassing, and spatial factors, e.g., location and railway line where trespassing occurs most frequently, and a list of current and planned prevention measures on the Italian railway network. In the future, trespassing locations can be analysed according to the topology of risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Traffic Safety Culture)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 3015 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring National Transportation Safety Board Aviation Modality Recommendations Through Content and Sentiment Analyses: 2015–2019

by Brian J. Roggow

Safety 2025, 11(2), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11020054 - 10 Jun 2025

Aviation safety recommendations are the National Transportation Safety Board’s key mechanism for effecting improvements and curtailing subsequent accidents. Aviation safety recommendations and their associated correspondence have been minimally explored in the extant literature, potentially overlooking constrained versus successful risk mitigation themes. This research [...] Read more.

Aviation safety recommendations are the National Transportation Safety Board’s key mechanism for effecting improvements and curtailing subsequent accidents. Aviation safety recommendations and their associated correspondence have been minimally explored in the extant literature, potentially overlooking constrained versus successful risk mitigation themes. This research aimed to qualitatively explore 187 aviation safety recommendations using a framework adapted from the SHELL model. The research also examined the recommendations’ correspondence content to illuminate the characteristics typical of positive versus negative sentiments. The results included risk mitigation themes distributed across the categories of addressees, report statuses, and reiterations. Addressing company, management, manning, or regulatory issues was the most prevalent risk mitigation strategy, followed by physical environment and other human-system support mitigations. The sentiment analyses’ results included distributions across addressees, statuses, time, reiterations, and correspondences. NTSB and addressee correspondence sentiments remained mostly consistent over time and interactions, whereas differences were observed based on addressees and unacceptable report statuses. This article offers the first systematic analysis of NTSB aviation safety recommendations’ risk mitigation themes and addressee correspondences. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 1202 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proposed Design of a Mobile Lift Device to Reduce the Risk of Musculoskeletal Injuries Among Fire Extinguisher Inspectors

by Yonlada Khunburan and Teeraphun Kaewdok

Safety 2025, 11(2), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11020053 - 6 Jun 2025

Fire extinguisher inspectors face ergonomic risk factors and are exposed to several musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). The aim of this study was to design and evaluate a mobile lift device to reduce the risk of musculoskeletal injuries among fire extinguisher inspectors. This was followed [...] Read more.

Fire extinguisher inspectors face ergonomic risk factors and are exposed to several musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). The aim of this study was to design and evaluate a mobile lift device to reduce the risk of musculoskeletal injuries among fire extinguisher inspectors. This was followed by a quasi-experimental trial among 28 workers, using surface electromyography (EMG), in which muscle activity with percentage of maximum voluntary contraction (MVC), postural analysis using the Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA), perceived exertion, and perceived ease of use among workers were evaluated during the fire extinguisher inspection process employing a manual fire extinguisher and using a mobile lift device. The results of the EMG measurement of the muscle activity in the biceps brachii, triceps brachii, middle deltoid, and upper trapezius were obtained using the MVC parameter. The MVC parameter was employed to normalize the EMG signals, allowing for a standardized comparison of muscle activation levels across different tasks and conditions. The results showed a significant positive effect on the muscle activity of the middle deltoid and biceps brachii; the posture risk level and rating for perceived exertion with the mobile lift device were generally lower than those of manual lifting (p < 0.001). With the mobile lift device, there was significant reduction in the muscle activity of the triceps brachii and upper trapezius (p < 0.05). Accordingly, mobile lift devices were found to be useful due to the reduced muscle effort, and postural risks were reduced when using the mobile lift device. Further studies are needed for modifications to the lift assist device based on ergonomic measures of muscle activity and user tests by adjusting the task to suit the capabilities of workers. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

29 pages, 6791 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Health and Safety Management System (HSMS) and Its Impact on Employee Satisfaction and Performance—A New HSMS Model

by Prodromos D. Chatzoglou, Athanasios E. Kotzakolios and Panagiotis K. Marhavilas

Safety 2025, 11(2), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11020052 - 6 Jun 2025

The main aim of this study is to investigate the association of an assortment of factors pertaining to the implementation of a Health and Safety Management System (HSMS) with firms’ Health and Safety (H&S) level and employees’ satisfaction and performance. The proposed research [...] Read more.

The main aim of this study is to investigate the association of an assortment of factors pertaining to the implementation of a Health and Safety Management System (HSMS) with firms’ Health and Safety (H&S) level and employees’ satisfaction and performance. The proposed research model incorporates six independent factors: (i) the development of a safety culture, (ii) the availability of H&S specific procedures/instructions/rules, (iii) the forethought of H&S-focused training, (iv) the availability of the essential resources to improve H&S equipment, (v) the augmentation of employee motivation for safe behavior, and (vi) the top management commitment to upgrade H&S at the workplace. The model was empirically tested using primary data from 230 employees of 10 manufacturing firms operating in Greece. It was found that H&S meliorates employees’ performance, but, on the other hand, firm’s management should be committed towards creating a high-level safety culture. To achieve this, proper resources should be invested, comprehensible procedures/instructions/rules should be established, and focused training should be provided. The acceptance of this policy would result in an enhanced safety culture, an augmented firm H&S level, amplified employee satisfaction and, accordingly, improved employee performance. In addition, this article suggests a new HSMS model, which, by relying on the principles of the Plan–Do–Check–Act cycle, incorporates the examined six H&S factors, which can upgrade other known standards (like OHSAS 18001 and ISO 45001). Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Perceived Working Conditions and Intention to Adopt Digital Safety Training in High-Risk Productive Sectors: An Exploratory Study in Manufacturing and Agriculture in Northwest Italy

by Francesco Sguaizer, Lucia Vigoroso, Margherita Micheletti Cremasco and Federica Caffaro

Safety 2025, 11(2), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11020051 - 5 Jun 2025

Agriculture and manufacturing report the highest rate of occupational accidents and fatalities in Italy. Safety training provided through digital devices has been shown to be effective in promoting safety behaviors at work. This study aimed to investigate through a questionnaire the perceptions of [...] Read more.

Agriculture and manufacturing report the highest rate of occupational accidents and fatalities in Italy. Safety training provided through digital devices has been shown to be effective in promoting safety behaviors at work. This study aimed to investigate through a questionnaire the perceptions of working conditions, risks in using machines, and interest in using digital devices for safety training purposes in a group of vineyard workers (VWs, N = 40) and manufacturing workers (MWs, N = 39) in Northwest Italy. Referring to working conditions, VWs significantly differ compared to MWs (p < 0.05) in fatigue perception, repetitiveness, quantity and definition of tasks compared to the available time, work pace definition, and level of communication. Tractors and lathes were considered the most hazardous machinery for VWs and MWs, respectively. For both groups, workers’ age negatively correlated with digital device use (r = −0.399 p < 0.05 for VWs, r = −0.673 p < 0.01 for MWs) but not with interest in using them. Device adoption positively correlated with the perceived importance of gamification content (r = 0.193 and r = 0.164, p > 0.05 for VWs and MWs, respectively), but the video lessons reported a higher mean score by both groups as preferred content. These findings suggest that digital safety training requires customized content to effectively adapt to different productive sectors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occupational Health and Safety (OHS): Emerging Trends and Future Directions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

More Articles...

Submit to Safety Review for Safety

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

► Journal Browser

Highly Accessed Articles

View More...

Latest Books

More Books and Reprints...

E-Mail Alert

News

4 July 2025
MDPI’s Newly Launched Journals in June 2025

2 July 2025
MDPI INSIGHTS: The CEO's Letter #24 - 2024 Impact Factor & CiteScore, MDPI Summits France & USA, Tu Youyou Award

26 June 2025
14 MDPI Journals Celebrate a Decade of Scholarly Publishing

More News & Announcements...

Topics

Propose a Topic

Topic in Healthcare, IJERPH, JCM, Safety, Toxics

New Research in Work-Related Diseases, Safety and Health Topic Editors: Alicja Bortkiewicz, Małgorzata Kurpesa
Deadline: 31 August 2025

Topic in Designs, Energies, Processes, Safety, Sustainability

Environmental and Workplace Sustainability of the Industrial Processes Topic Editors: Elisabetta Sieni, Sabrina Copelli, Barozzi Marco
Deadline: 31 December 2025

Topic in Buildings, Safety, Sustainability, World, Administrative Sciences

Building a Sustainable Construction Workforce, 2nd Edition Topic Editors: Hongyang Li, Beibei Zhang, Yingmiao Qian, Su Yang, Baoquan Cheng
Deadline: 31 March 2026

Topic in Foods, Materials, Polymers, Safety, Sensors, Toxics, Micromachines

Development of Rapid Detection Methods for Foodborne Micro/Trace Hazardous Substances Topic Editors: Bo Zhang, Yukun Yang
Deadline: 30 July 2026

More Topics

Conferences

Announce Your Conference

More Conferences...

Special Issues

Propose a Special Issue

Special Issue in Safety

Environmental Risk Assessment—Health and Safety Guest Editor: Brindusa Sluser
Deadline: 20 August 2025

Special Issue in Safety

Adaptive Human–Machine Interaction Guest Editors: Maura Mengoni, Roberto Montanari
Deadline: 31 August 2025

Special Issue in Safety

The Safe System Approach to Road Safety Guest Editor: Garrett Mattos
Deadline: 31 August 2025

Special Issue in Safety

Occupational Health and Safety (OHS): Emerging Trends and Future Directions Guest Editors: Mario Fargnoli, Leonardo Vita, Davide Gattamelata
Deadline: 20 September 2025

More Special Issues

Topical Collections

Topical Collection in Safety

Terrain and Off-Highway Vehicle Safety Collection Editor: Raphael Grzebieta

Topical Collection in Safety

Occupational Health and Safety in A Changing World: Realities, Challenges and Perspectives Collection Editor: Adel Badri

Back to TopTop