Sensors

Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review, Other

4 pages, 172 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources

by Mithun Kuniyil Ajith Singh and Wenfeng Xia

Sensors 2021, 21(7), 2572; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21072572 - 6 Apr 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2593

Abstract

The photoacoustic (PA) effect, also called the optoacoustic effect, was discovered in the 1880s by Alexander Graham Bell and has been utilized for biomedical imaging and sensing applications since the early 1990s [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review, Other

15 pages, 2012 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Remote Photoacoustic Sensing Using Single Speckle Analysis by an Ultra-Fast Four Quadrant Photo-Detector

by Benjamin Lengenfelder, Martin Hohmann, Moritz Späth, Daniel Scherbaum, Manuel Weiß, Stefan J. Rupitsch, Michael Schmidt, Zeev Zalevsky and Florian Klämpfl

Sensors 2021, 21(6), 2109; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21062109 - 17 Mar 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3322

Abstract

The need for tissue contact makes photoacoustic imaging not applicable for special medical applications like wound imaging, endoscopy, or laser surgery. An easy, stable, and contact-free sensing technique might thus help to broaden the applications of the medical imaging modality. In this work, [...] Read more.

The need for tissue contact makes photoacoustic imaging not applicable for special medical applications like wound imaging, endoscopy, or laser surgery. An easy, stable, and contact-free sensing technique might thus help to broaden the applications of the medical imaging modality. In this work, it is demonstrated for the first time that remote photoacoustic sensing by speckle analysis can be performed in the MHz sampling range by tracking a single speckle using a four quadrant photo-detector. A single speckle, which is created by self-interference of surface back-reflection, is temporally analyzed using this photo-detector. Phantoms and skin samples are measured in transmission and reflection mode. The potential for miniaturization for endoscopic application is demonstrated by fiber bundle measurements. In addition, sensing parameters are discussed. Photoacoustic sensing in the MHz sampling range by single speckle analysis with the four quadrant detector is successfully demonstrated. Furthermore, the endoscopic applicability is proven, and the sensing parameters are convenient for photoacoustic sensing. It can be concluded that a single speckle contains all the relevant information for remote photoacoustic signal detection. Single speckle sensing is therefore an easy, robust, contact-free photoacoustic detection technique and holds the potential for economical, ultra-fast photoacoustic sensing. The new detection technique might thus help to broaden the field of photoacoustic imaging applications in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 3949 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancement of Photoacoustic Signal Strength with Continuous Wave Optical Pre-Illumination: A Non-Invasive Technique

by Anjali Thomas, Souradip Paul, Joy Mitra and Mayanglambam Suheshkumar Singh

Sensors 2021, 21(4), 1190; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041190 - 8 Feb 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3249

Abstract

Use of portable and affordable pulse light sources (light emitting diodes (LED) and laser diodes) for tissue illumination offers an opportunity to accelerate the clinical translation of photoacoustic imaging (PAI) technology. However, imaging depth in this case is limited because of low output [...] Read more.

Use of portable and affordable pulse light sources (light emitting diodes (LED) and laser diodes) for tissue illumination offers an opportunity to accelerate the clinical translation of photoacoustic imaging (PAI) technology. However, imaging depth in this case is limited because of low output (optical) power of these light sources. In this work, we developed a noninvasive technique for enhancing strength (amplitude) of photoacoustic (PA) signal. This is a photothermal-based technique in which a continuous wave (CW) optical beam, in addition to short-pulse

(~ nsec)

laser beam, is employed to irradiate and, thus, raise the temperature of sample material selectively over a pre-specified region of interest (we call the process as pre-illumination). The increase in temperature, in turn enhances the PA-signal strength. Experiments were conducted in methylene blue, which is one of the commonly used contrast agents in laboratory research studies, to validate change in temperature and subsequent enhancement of PA-signal strength for the following cases: (1) concentration or optical absorption coefficient of sample, (2) optical power of CW-optical beam, and (3) time duration of pre-illumination. A theoretical hypothesis, being validated by numerical simulation, is presented. To validate the proposed technique for clinical and/or pre-clinical applications (diagnosis and treatments of cancer, pressure ulcers, and minimally invasive procedures including vascular access and fetal surgery), experiments were conducted in tissue-mimicking Agar phantom and ex-vivo animal tissue (chicken breast). Results demonstrate that pre-illumination significantly enhances PA-signal strength (up to

~ 70 %

(methylene blue),

~ 48 %

(Agar phantom), and

~ 40 %

(chicken tissue)). The proposed technique addresses one of the primary challenges in the clinical translation of LED-based PAI systems (more specifically, to obtain a detectable PA-signal from deep-seated tissue targets). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 2951 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Photoacoustic Imaging of Human Vasculature Using LED versus Laser Illumination: A Comparison Study on Tissue Phantoms and In Vivo Humans

by Sumit Agrawal, Mithun Kuniyil Ajith Singh, Kerrick Johnstonbaugh, David C. Han, Colette R. Pameijer and Sri-Rajasekhar Kothapalli

Sensors 2021, 21(2), 424; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21020424 - 9 Jan 2021

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 5885

Abstract

Vascular diseases are becoming an epidemic with an increasing aging population and increases in obesity and type II diabetes. Point-of-care (POC) diagnosis and monitoring of vascular diseases is an unmet medical need. Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) provides label-free multiparametric information of deep vasculature based [...] Read more.

Vascular diseases are becoming an epidemic with an increasing aging population and increases in obesity and type II diabetes. Point-of-care (POC) diagnosis and monitoring of vascular diseases is an unmet medical need. Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) provides label-free multiparametric information of deep vasculature based on strong absorption of light photons by hemoglobin molecules. However, conventional PAI systems use bulky nanosecond lasers which hinders POC applications. Recently, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have emerged as cost-effective and portable optical sources for the PAI of living subjects. However, state-of-art LED arrays carry significantly lower optical energy (<0.5 mJ/pulse) and high pulse repetition frequencies (PRFs) (4 KHz) compared to the high-power laser sources (100 mJ/pulse) with low PRFs of 10 Hz. Given these tradeoffs between portability, cost, optical energy and frame rate, this work systematically studies the deep tissue PAI performance of LED and laser illuminations to help select a suitable source for a given biomedical application. To draw a fair comparison, we developed a fiberoptic array that delivers laser illumination similar to the LED array and uses the same ultrasound transducer and data acquisition platform for PAI with these two illuminations. Several controlled studies on tissue phantoms demonstrated that portable LED arrays with high frame averaging show higher signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) of up to 30 mm depth, and the high-energy laser source was found to be more effective for imaging depths greater than 30 mm at similar frame rates. Label-free in vivo imaging of human hand vasculature studies further confirmed that the vascular contrast from LED-PAI is similar to laser-PAI for up to 2 cm depths. Therefore, LED-PAI systems have strong potential to be a mobile health care technology for diagnosing vascular diseases such as peripheral arterial disease and stroke in POC and resource poor settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 3024 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oxygen Saturation Imaging Using LED-Based Photoacoustic System

by Rianne Bulsink, Mithun Kuniyil Ajith Singh, Marvin Xavierselvan, Srivalleesha Mallidi, Wiendelt Steenbergen and Kalloor Joseph Francis

Sensors 2021, 21(1), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21010283 - 4 Jan 2021

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 5834 | Correction

Abstract

Oxygen saturation imaging has potential in several preclinical and clinical applications. Dual-wavelength LED array-based photoacoustic oxygen saturation imaging can be an affordable solution in this case. For the translation of this technology, there is a need to improve its accuracy and validate it [...] Read more.

Oxygen saturation imaging has potential in several preclinical and clinical applications. Dual-wavelength LED array-based photoacoustic oxygen saturation imaging can be an affordable solution in this case. For the translation of this technology, there is a need to improve its accuracy and validate it against ground truth methods. We propose a fluence compensated oxygen saturation imaging method, utilizing structural information from the ultrasound image, and prior knowledge of the optical properties of the tissue with a Monte-Carlo based light propagation model for the dual-wavelength LED array configuration. We then validate the proposed method with oximeter measurements in tissue-mimicking phantoms. Further, we demonstrate in vivo imaging on small animal and a human subject. We conclude that the proposed oxygen saturation imaging can be used to image tissue at a depth of 6–8 mm in both preclinical and clinical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 4097 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

In Vivo Tumor Vascular Imaging with Light Emitting Diode-Based Photoacoustic Imaging System

by Marvin Xavierselvan, Mithun Kuniyil Ajith Singh and Srivalleesha Mallidi

Sensors 2020, 20(16), 4503; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20164503 - 12 Aug 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6161

Abstract

Photoacoustic (PA) imaging has shown tremendous promise for imaging tumor vasculature and its function at deeper penetration depths without the use of exogenous contrast agents. Traditional PA imaging systems employ expensive and bulky class IV lasers with low pulse repetition rate, due to [...] Read more.

Photoacoustic (PA) imaging has shown tremendous promise for imaging tumor vasculature and its function at deeper penetration depths without the use of exogenous contrast agents. Traditional PA imaging systems employ expensive and bulky class IV lasers with low pulse repetition rate, due to which its availability for preclinical cancer research is hampered. In this study, we evaluated the capability of a Light-Emitting Diode (LED)-based PA and ultrasound (US) imaging system for monitoring heterogeneous microvasculature in tumors (up to 10 mm in depth) and quantitatively compared the PA images with gold standard histology images. We used a combination of a 7 MHz linear array US transducer and 850 nm excitation wavelength LED arrays to image blood vessels in a subcutaneous tumor model. After imaging, the tumors were sectioned and stained for endothelial cells to correlate with PA images across similar cross-sections. Analysis of 30 regions of interest in tumors from different mice showed a statistically significant R-value of 0.84 where the areas with high blood vessel density had high PA response while low blood vessel density regions had low PA response. Our results confirm that LED-based PA and US imaging can provide 2D and 3D images of tumor vasculature and the potential it has as a valuable tool for preclinical cancer research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 4069 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiangle Long-Axis Lateral Illumination Photoacoustic Imaging Using Linear Array Transducer

by João H. Uliana, Diego R. T. Sampaio, Guilherme S. P. Fernandes, María S. Brassesco, Marcello H. Nogueira-Barbosa, Antonio A. O. Carneiro and Theo Z. Pavan

Sensors 2020, 20(14), 4052; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20144052 - 21 Jul 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4944

Abstract

Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) combines optical contrast with ultrasound spatial resolution and can be obtained up to a depth of a few centimeters. Hand-held PAI systems using linear array usually operate in reflection mode using a dark-field illumination scheme, where the optical fiber output [...] Read more.

Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) combines optical contrast with ultrasound spatial resolution and can be obtained up to a depth of a few centimeters. Hand-held PAI systems using linear array usually operate in reflection mode using a dark-field illumination scheme, where the optical fiber output is attached to both sides of the elevation plane (short-axis) of the transducer. More recently, bright-field strategies where the optical illumination is coaxial with acoustic detection have been proposed to overcome some limitations of the standard dark-field approach. In this paper, a novel multiangle long-axis lateral illumination is proposed. Monte Carlo simulations were conducted to evaluate light delivery for three different illumination schemes: bright-field, standard dark-field, and long-axis lateral illumination. Long-axis lateral illumination showed remarkable improvement in light delivery for targets with a width smaller than the transducer lateral dimension. A prototype was developed to experimentally demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed approach. In this device, the fiber bundle terminal ends are attached to both sides of the transducer’s long-axis and the illumination angle of each fiber bundle can be independently controlled. The final PA image is obtained by the coherent sum of subframes acquired using different angles. The prototype was experimentally evaluated by taking images from a phantom, a mouse abdomen, forearm, and index finger of a volunteer. The system provided light delivery enhancement taking advantage of the geometry of the target, achieving sufficient signal-to-noise ratio at clinically relevant depths. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 3086 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Optimizing Irradiation Geometry in LED-Based Photoacoustic Imaging with 3D Printed Flexible and Modular Light Delivery System

by Maju Kuriakose, Christopher D. Nguyen, Mithun Kuniyil Ajith Singh and Srivalleesha Mallidi

Sensors 2020, 20(13), 3789; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20133789 - 6 Jul 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4804

Abstract

Photoacoustic (PA) imaging–a technique combining the ability of optical imaging to probe functional properties of the tissue and deep structural imaging ability of ultrasound–has gained significant popularity in the past two decades for its utility in several biomedical applications. More recently, light-emitting diodes [...] Read more.

Photoacoustic (PA) imaging–a technique combining the ability of optical imaging to probe functional properties of the tissue and deep structural imaging ability of ultrasound–has gained significant popularity in the past two decades for its utility in several biomedical applications. More recently, light-emitting diodes (LED) are being explored as an alternative to bulky and expensive laser systems used in PA imaging for their portability and low-cost. Due to the large beam divergence of LEDs compared to traditional laser beams, it is imperative to quantify the angular dependence of LED-based illumination and optimize its performance for imaging superficial or deep-seated lesions. A custom-built modular 3-D printed hinge system and tissue-mimicking phantoms with various absorption and scattering properties were used in this study to quantify the angular dependence of LED-based illumination. We also experimentally calculated the source divergence of the pulsed-LED arrays to be 58° ± 8°. Our results from point sources (pencil lead phantom) in non-scattering medium obey the cotangential relationship between the angle of irradiation and maximum PA intensity obtained at various imaging depths, as expected. Strong dependence on the angle of illumination at superficial depths (−5°/mm at 10 mm) was observed that becomes weaker at intermediate depths (−2.5°/mm at 20 mm) and negligible at deeper locations (−1.1°/mm at 30 mm). The results from the tissue-mimicking phantom in scattering media indicate that angles between 30–75° could be used for imaging lesions at various depths (12 mm–28 mm) where lower LED illumination angles (closer to being parallel to the imaging plane) are preferable for deep tissue imaging and superficial lesion imaging is possible with higher LED illumination angles (closer to being perpendicular to the imaging plane). Our results can serve as a priori knowledge for the future LED-based PA system designs employed for both preclinical and clinical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

8 pages, 20585 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Tomographic Ultrasound and LED-Based Photoacoustic System for Preclinical Imaging

by Kalloor Joseph Francis, Richell Booijink, Ruchi Bansal and Wiendelt Steenbergen

Sensors 2020, 20(10), 2793; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20102793 - 14 May 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4241

Abstract

Small animals are widely used as disease models in medical research. Noninvasive imaging modalities with functional capability play an important role in studying the disease state and treatment progress. Photoacoustics, being a noninvasive and functional modality, has the potential for small-animal imaging. However, [...] Read more.

Small animals are widely used as disease models in medical research. Noninvasive imaging modalities with functional capability play an important role in studying the disease state and treatment progress. Photoacoustics, being a noninvasive and functional modality, has the potential for small-animal imaging. However, the conventional photoacoustic tomographic systems use pulsed lasers, making it expensive, bulky, and require long acquisition time. In this work, we propose the use of photoacoustic and ultrasound tomographic imaging with LEDs as the light source and acoustic detection using a linear transducer array. We have demonstrated full-view tomographic imaging of a euthanized mouse and a potential application in liver fibrosis research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 3090 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical-Resolution Photoacoustic Microscopy Using Transparent Ultrasound Transducer

by Haoyang Chen, Sumit Agrawal, Ajay Dangi, Christopher Wible, Mohamed Osman, Lidya Abune, Huizhen Jia, Randall Rossi, Yong Wang and Sri-Rajasekhar Kothapalli

Sensors 2019, 19(24), 5470; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19245470 - 11 Dec 2019

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 7683

Abstract

The opacity of conventional ultrasound transducers can impede the miniaturization and workflow of current photoacoustic systems. In particular, optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-PAM) requires the coaxial alignment of optical illumination and acoustic-detection paths through complex beam combiners and a thick coupling medium. To overcome [...] Read more.

The opacity of conventional ultrasound transducers can impede the miniaturization and workflow of current photoacoustic systems. In particular, optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-PAM) requires the coaxial alignment of optical illumination and acoustic-detection paths through complex beam combiners and a thick coupling medium. To overcome these hurdles, we developed a novel OR-PAM method on the basis of our recently reported transparent lithium niobate (LiNbO₃) ultrasound transducer (Dangi et al., Optics Letters, 2019), which was centered at 13 MHz ultrasound frequency with 60% photoacoustic bandwidth. To test the feasibility of wearable OR-PAM, optical-only raster scanning of focused light through a transducer was performed while the transducer was fixed above the imaging subject. Imaging experiments on resolution targets and carbon fibers demonstrated a lateral resolution of 8.5 µm. Further, we demonstrated vasculature mapping using chicken embryos and melanoma depth profiling using tissue phantoms. In conclusion, the proposed OR-PAM system using a low-cost transparent LiNbO₃ window transducer has a promising future in wearable and high-throughput imaging applications, e.g., integration with conventional optical microscopy to enable a multimodal microscopy platform capable of ultrasound stimulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research, Other

29 pages, 5736 KiB

Open AccessReview

Portable and Affordable Light Source-Based Photoacoustic Tomography

by Mithun Kuniyil Ajith Singh and Wenfeng Xia

Sensors 2020, 20(21), 6173; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216173 - 29 Oct 2020

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 6437

Abstract

Photoacoustic imaging is a hybrid imaging modality that offers the advantages of optical (spectroscopic contrast) and ultrasound imaging (scalable spatial resolution and imaging depth). This promising modality has shown excellent potential in a wide range of preclinical and clinical imaging and sensing applications. [...] Read more.

Photoacoustic imaging is a hybrid imaging modality that offers the advantages of optical (spectroscopic contrast) and ultrasound imaging (scalable spatial resolution and imaging depth). This promising modality has shown excellent potential in a wide range of preclinical and clinical imaging and sensing applications. Even though photoacoustic imaging technology has matured in research settings, its clinical translation is not happening at the expected pace. One of the main reasons for this is the requirement of bulky and expensive pulsed lasers for excitation. To accelerate the clinical translation of photoacoustic imaging and explore its potential in resource-limited settings, it is of paramount importance to develop portable and affordable light sources that can be used as the excitation light source. In this review, we focus on the following aspects: (1) the basic theory of photoacoustic imaging; (2) inexpensive light sources and different implementations; and (3) important preclinical and clinical applications, demonstrated using affordable light source-based photoacoustics. The main focus will be on laser diodes and light-emitting diodes as they have demonstrated promise in photoacoustic tomography—the key technological developments in these areas will be thoroughly reviewed. We believe that this review will be a useful opus for both the beginners and experts in the field of biomedical photoacoustic imaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 8151 KiB

Open AccessReview

Towards Clinical Translation of LED-Based Photoacoustic Imaging: A Review

by Yunhao Zhu, Ting Feng, Qian Cheng, Xueding Wang, Sidan Du, Naoto Sato, Jie Yuan and Mithun Kuniyil Ajith Singh

Sensors 2020, 20(9), 2484; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20092484 - 27 Apr 2020

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 7896

Abstract

Photoacoustic imaging, with the capability to provide simultaneous structural, functional, and molecular information, is one of the fastest growing biomedical imaging modalities of recent times. As a hybrid modality, it not only provides greater penetration depth than the purely optical imaging techniques, but [...] Read more.

Photoacoustic imaging, with the capability to provide simultaneous structural, functional, and molecular information, is one of the fastest growing biomedical imaging modalities of recent times. As a hybrid modality, it not only provides greater penetration depth than the purely optical imaging techniques, but also provides optical contrast of molecular components in the living tissue. Conventionally, photoacoustic imaging systems utilize bulky and expensive class IV lasers, which is one of the key factors hindering the clinical translation of this promising modality. Use of LEDs which are portable and affordable offers a unique opportunity to accelerate the clinical translation of photoacoustics. In this paper, we first review the development history of LED as an illumination source in biomedical photoacoustic imaging. Key developments in this area, from point-source measurements to development of high-power LED arrays, are briefly discussed. Finally, we thoroughly review multiple phantom, ex-vivo, animal in-vivo, human in-vivo, and clinical pilot studies and demonstrate the unprecedented preclinical and clinical potential of LED-based photoacoustic imaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Other

Jump to: Editorial, Research, Review

13 pages, 6616 KiB

Open AccessLetter

Photoacoustic Imaging as a Tool for Assessing Hair Follicular Organization

by Ali Hariri, Colman Moore, Yash Mantri and Jesse V. Jokerst

Sensors 2020, 20(20), 5848; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20205848 - 16 Oct 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4614

Abstract

Follicular unit extraction (FUE) and follicular unit transplantation (FUT) account for 99% of hair transplant procedures. In both cases, it is important for clinicians to characterize follicle density for treatment planning and evaluation. The existing gold-standard is photographic examination. However, this approach is [...] Read more.

Follicular unit extraction (FUE) and follicular unit transplantation (FUT) account for 99% of hair transplant procedures. In both cases, it is important for clinicians to characterize follicle density for treatment planning and evaluation. The existing gold-standard is photographic examination. However, this approach is insensitive to subdermal hair and cannot identify follicle orientation. Here, we introduce a fast and non-invasive imaging technique to measure follicle density and angles across regions of varying density. We first showed that hair is a significant source of photoacoustic signal. We then selected regions of low, medium, and high follicle density and showed that photoacoustic imaging can measure the density of follicles even when they are not visible by eye. We performed handheld imaging by sweeping the transducer across the imaging area to generate 3D images via maximum intensity projection. Background signal from the dermis was removed using a skin tracing method. Measurement of follicle density using photoacoustic imaging was highly correlated with photographic determination (R² = 0.96). Finally, we measured subdermal follicular angles—a key parameter influencing transection rates in FUE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 3234 KiB

Open AccessLetter

An Automatic Unmixing Approach to Detect Tissue Chromophores from Multispectral Photoacoustic Imaging

by Valeria Grasso, Joost Holthof and Jithin Jose

Sensors 2020, 20(11), 3235; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20113235 - 6 Jun 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4849

Abstract

Multispectral photoacoustic imaging has been widely explored as an emerging tool to visualize and quantify tissue chromophores noninvasively. This modality can capture the spectral absorption signature of prominent tissue chromophores, such as oxygenated, deoxygenated hemoglobin, and other biomarkers in the tissue by using [...] Read more.

Multispectral photoacoustic imaging has been widely explored as an emerging tool to visualize and quantify tissue chromophores noninvasively. This modality can capture the spectral absorption signature of prominent tissue chromophores, such as oxygenated, deoxygenated hemoglobin, and other biomarkers in the tissue by using spectral unmixing methods. Currently, most of the reported image processing algorithms use standard unmixing procedures, which include user interaction in the form of providing the expected spectral signatures. For translational research with patients, these types of supervised spectral unmixing can be challenging, as the spectral signature of the tissues can differ with respect to the disease condition. Imaging exogenous contrast agents and accessing their biodistribution can also be problematic, as some of the contrast agents are susceptible to change in spectral properties after the tissue interaction. In this work, we investigated the feasibility of an unsupervised spectral unmixing algorithm to detect and extract the tissue chromophores without any a-priori knowledge and user interaction. The algorithm has been optimized for multispectral photoacoustic imaging in the spectral range of 680–900 nm. The performance of the algorithm has been tested on simulated data, tissue-mimicking phantom, and also on the detection of exogenous contrast agents after the intravenous injection in mice. Our finding shows that the proposed automatic, unsupervised spectral unmixing method has great potential to extract and quantify the tissue chromophores, and this can be used in any wavelength range of the multispectral photoacoustic images. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Biomedical Photoacoustic Imaging and Sensing Using Affordable Resources

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Special Issue Information

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Published Papers (14 papers)

Editorial

Research

Review

Other

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI