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Electromagnetic Sensing and Nondestructive Evaluation

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Sensing and Imaging".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 December 2023) | Viewed by 15191

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Saptarshi Mukherjee

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Guest Editor

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
Interests: microwave imaging; RF devices; nondestructive testing; metamaterials

Dr. Tammy Chang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Lockheed Martin Space, Sunnyvale, CA 94089, USA
Interests: microwave/millimeter-wave sensors; high power RF/microwave systems; antennas/RF circuits

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The rapid evolution of sensor technology, advanced manufacturing methodologies, computational resources, and data science has enabled advances in electromagnetic sensing and nondestructive evaluation techniques. These techniques have relevance for a broad range of industries, such as aerospace, civil, environmental, biomedical, and advanced manufacturing. Despite these advances in technology, there remains a crucial need for the maturation of characterization techniques that allow for the rapid inspection of low-contrast objects with fine resolution at large standoff distances, as well as over large physical areas.

This Special Issue aims to provide insights into recent developments in electromagnetic sensing and characterization for frequencies ranging from DC to sub-THz. Topics of interest include technology which addresses forward and inverse problems. Examples include but are not limited to compact, low-cost, and/or wireless sensors; antennas and metamaterial-based designs for enhanced and/or sub-wavelength resolution; in-situ and/or real-time diagnostics; computationally inexpensive imaging/reconstruction methods; and novel machine learning and/or signal processing techniques.

Dr. Saptarshi Mukherjee
Dr. Tammy Chang
Guest Editors

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Keywords

compact, low-cost, and/or wireless sensors;
antennas and metamaterial-based designs for enhanced and/or sub-wavelength resolution;
in-situ and/or real-time diagnostics;
computationally inexpensive imaging/reconstruction methods;
novel machine learning and/or signal processing techniques.

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

22 pages, 8078 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Metamaterial Surface Avoiding Loss from the Radome for a Millimeter-Wave Signal-Sensing Array Antenna

by Inyeol Moon, Woogon Kim, Yejune Seo and Sungtek Kahng

Sensors 2024, 24(3), 1018; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24031018 - 5 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1692

Abstract

Radar systems are a type of sensor that detects radio signals reflected from objects located a long distance from transmitters. For covering a longer range and a higher resolution in the operation of a radar, a high-frequency band and an array antenna are measures to take. Given a limited size to the antenna aperture in the front end of the radar, the choice of a millimeter-wave band leads to a denser layout for the array antenna and a higher antenna gain. Millimeter-wave signals tend to become attenuated faster by a larger loss of the covering material like the radome, implying this disadvantage offsets the advantage of high antenna directivity, compared to the C-band and X-band ones. As the radome is essential to the radar system to protect the array antenna from rain and dust, a metamaterial surface in the layer is suggested to meet multiple objectives. Firstly, the proposed electromagnetic structure is the protection layer for the source of radiation. Secondly, the metasurface does not disturb the millimeter-wave signal and makes its way through the cover layer to the air. This electromagnetically transparent surface transforms the phase distribution of the incident wave into the equal phase in the transmitted wave, resulting in an increased antenna gain. This is fabricated and assembled with the array antenna held in a 3D-printed jig with harnessing accessories. It is examined in view of S₂₁ as the transfer coefficient between two ports of the VNA, having the antenna alone and with the metasurface. Additionally, the far-field test comes next to check the validity of the suggested structure and design. The bench test shows around a 7 dB increase in the transfer coefficient, and the anechoic chamber field test gives about a 5 dB improvement in antenna gain for a 24-band GHz array antenna. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electromagnetic Sensing and Nondestructive Evaluation)

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15 pages, 6651 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Goubau Wave Propagation on Large Pipes for Sensing Applications

by David W. Greve, Jagannath Devkota, Paul R. Ohodnicki and Ruishu Wright

Sensors 2023, 23(11), 4991; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23114991 - 23 May 2023

Viewed by 1314

Abstract

We examine the application of guided waves on a single conductor (Goubau waves) for sensing. In particular, the use of such waves to remotely interrogate surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensors mounted on large-radius conductors (pipes) is considered. Experimental results using a small-radius (0.0032 m) conductor at 435 MHz are reported. The applicability of published theory to conductors of large radius is examined. Finite element simulations are then used to study the propagation and launching of Goubau waves on steel conductors up to 0.254 m in radius. Simulations show that waves can be launched and received, although energy loss into radiating waves is a problem with current launcher designs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electromagnetic Sensing and Nondestructive Evaluation)

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19 pages, 4212 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Tuned Microwave Resonant System for Subcutaneous Imaging

by Sen Bing, Khengdauliu Chawang and Jung-Chih Chiao

Sensors 2023, 23(6), 3090; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23063090 - 13 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2063

Abstract

A compact and planar imaging system was developed using a flexible polymer substrate that can distinguish subcutaneous tissue abnormalities, such as breast tumors, based on electromagnetic-wave interactions in materials where permittivity variations affect wave reflection. The sensing element is a tuned loop resonator operating in the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band at 2.423 GHz, providing a localized high-intensity electric field that penetrates into tissues with sufficient spatial and spectral resolutions. The resonant frequency shifts and magnitudes of the reflection coefficients indicate the boundaries of abnormal tissues under the skin due to their high contrasts to normal tissues. The sensor was tuned to the desired resonant frequency with a reflection coefficient of −68.8 dB for a radius of 5.7 mm, with a tuning pad. Quality factors of 173.1 and 34.4 were achieved in simulations and measurements in phantoms. An image-processing method was introduced to fuse raster-scanned 9 × 9 images of resonant frequencies and reflection coefficients for image-contrast enhancement. The results showed a clear indication of the tumor’s location at a depth of 15 mm and the capability to identify two tumors both at the depth of 10 mm. The sensing element can be expanded to a four-element phased array for deeper field penetration. Field analysis showed the depths of −20 dB attenuation were improved from 19 to 42 mm, giving wider coverage in tissues at resonance. Results showed that a quality factor of 152.5 was achieved and a tumor could be identified at a depth of up to 50 mm. In this work, simulations and measurements were conducted to validate the concept, showing great potential for subcutaneous imaging in medical applications in a noninvasive, efficient, and lower-cost way. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electromagnetic Sensing and Nondestructive Evaluation)

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19 pages, 4882 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Defect Detection in Additively Manufactured Lattice Structures Using 3D Electrical Resistance Tomography

by Yening Shu, Saptarshi Mukherjee, Tammy Chang, Abigail Gilmore, Joseph W. Tringe, David M. Stobbe and Kenneth J. Loh

Sensors 2022, 22(23), 9167; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22239167 - 25 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1782

Abstract

Cellular lattice structures possess high strength-to-weight ratios suitable for advanced lightweight engineering applications. However, their quality and mechanical performance can degrade because of defects introduced during manufacturing or in-service. Their complexity and small length scale features make defects difficult to detect using conventional nondestructive evaluation methods. Here we propose a current injection-based method, electrical resistance tomography (ERT), that can be used to detect damaged struts in conductive cellular lattice structures with their intrinsic electromechanical properties. The reconstructed conductivity distributions from ERT can reveal the severity and location of damaged struts without having to probe each strut. However, the low central sensitivity of ERT may result in image artifacts and inaccurate localization of damaged struts. To address this issue, this study introduces an absolute, high throughput, conductivity reconstruction algorithm for 3D ERT. The algorithm incorporates a strut-based normalized sensitivity map to compensate for lower interior sensitivity and suppresses reconstruction artifacts. Numerical simulations and experiments on fabricated representative cellular lattice structures were performed to verify the ability of ERT to quantitatively identify single and multiple damaged struts. The improved performance of this method compared with classical ERT was observed, based on greatly decreased imaging and reconstructed value errors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electromagnetic Sensing and Nondestructive Evaluation)

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20 pages, 4518 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification and Compensation for D-Dot Measurement System in Transient Electromagnetic Pulse Measurement

by Mengzhe Jin, Hao Li and Shanghe Liu

Sensors 2022, 22(21), 8538; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218538 - 6 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1738

Abstract

The measurement of the transient pulsed electromagnetic (EM) field is essential for analyzing electromagnetic compatibility. Due to their good performance, D-dot sensors, combined with numerical integration computation for signal recovery, are commonly used to measure electromagnetic pulses (EMPs). However, the integration approach is occasionally flawed due to a non-ideal frequency response or noise, causing distortions in the reconstructed signal. In order to better understand the dynamic performance of the sensor, a nonlinear Hammerstein model is employed in the system identification for the sensor with the calibration data collected in the laboratory environment. When identifying the linear component based on the ultra-wideband characteristics of the measured transient pulse, a two-step identification approach with two different pulse excitation modes, low frequency and high frequency, is utilized to conduct the modeling across the entire frequency range. Based on the reliable identification and modeling of the D-dot sensor, a compensation system that corresponds to the nonlinear Hammerstein model has been developed for the practical signal recovery of the incident E-field. After compensation, the dynamic characteristics of the sensor are significantly improved, and the system compensation approach outperforms the integration method in signal recovery for the incident E-field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electromagnetic Sensing and Nondestructive Evaluation)

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13 pages, 2827 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Model Assisted Probability of Detection Estimations in Eddy Current NDT with ACA-SVD Based Forward Solver

by Yang Bao, Minxuan Xu, Jiahao Qiu and Jiming Song

Sensors 2022, 22(19), 7625; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197625 - 8 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1637

Abstract

Model assisted probability of detection (MAPoD) is crucial for quantifying the inspection capability of a nondestructive testing (NDT) system which uses the coil or probe to sense the size and location of the cracks. Unfortunately, it may be computationally intensive for the simulation models. To improve the efficiency of the MAPoD, in this article, an efficient 3D eddy current nondestructive evaluation (ECNDE) forward solver is proposed to make estimations for PoD study. It is the first time that singular value decomposition (SVD) is used as the recompression technique to improve the overall performance of the adaptive cross approximation (ACA) algorithm-based boundary element method (BEM) ECNDE forward solver for implementation of PoD. Both the robustness and efficiency of the proposed solver are demonstrated and testified by comparing the predicted impedance variations of the coil with analytical, semi-analytical and experimental benchmarks. Calculation of PoD curves assisted by the proposed simulation model is performed on a finite thickness plate with a rectangular surface flaw. The features, which are the maximum impedance variations of the coil for various flaw lengths, are obtained entirely by the proposed model with selection of the liftoff distance as the uncertain parameter in a Gaussian distribution. The results show that the proposed ACA-SVD based BEM fast ECNDE forward solver is an excellent simulation model to make estimations for MAPoD study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electromagnetic Sensing and Nondestructive Evaluation)

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19 pages, 9573 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Design of Electromagnetic Velocity Sensor with High Sensitivity Based on Dual-Magnet Structure

by Xiao Zhou, Yangfan Ruan, Xingang Mou, Yuhao Yuan and Yi He

Sensors 2022, 22(18), 6925; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22186925 - 13 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3670

Abstract

The most permanent magnets in current electromagnetic velocity sensors are magnet cylinders that have been axially magnetized, with magnetic boots changing the propagation direction of the magnetic induction lines of the magnet cylinders. However, the magnetic field generated by the magnet cylinders is not fully utilized, which leads to uneven magnetic field intensity of the working air-gap and high magnetic field intensity of the nonworking air-gap. We propose a novel dual-magnet structure (DM) mainly consisting of two magnet loops that are magnetized radially and a magnetic conductive shaft, adopting a concentric nested configuration. The dual-magnet structure can make the magnetic induction lines enter the working air-gap directly from the magnet and increase the effective magnetic field, which is perpendicular to the coils in the working air-gap. This design can further improve the sensitivity of a velocity sensor and enhance its ability to detect weak signals in microtremor exploration. The validity of the dual-magnet structure has been established by numerical simulations and verified by experiments. The results reveal that the magnetic field intensity is increased by 29.18% and the sensitivity is improved by 23.9%, when the total volume and material of the magnet are unchanged. The full utilization of the material is achieved without increasing the complexity of the structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electromagnetic Sensing and Nondestructive Evaluation)

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