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Combining Machine Learning and Sensors in Human Movement Biomechanics

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Wearables".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 September 2024) | Viewed by 26946

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Mariano Serrao

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Guest Editor

Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
Interests: neurology; clinical biomechanics; machine learning; movement disorders
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Alberto Ranavolo

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Guest Editor

Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Epidemiology and Hygiene, INAIL, Rome, Italy
Interests: movement analysis; surface electromyography; ergonomics; biomechanical risk; manual handling activities; rehabilitation; neurorehabilitation; wearable monitoring devices; robotics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear colleagues,

In these last few years miniaturized and wearable human body sensors have been attracting increasing attention due to their appealing applications. Wearable devices allow a wireless, low-power consumption and real-time quantification of motor functions and abilities, pathological conditions, compensatory motor strategies, and improvements due to pharmacological and non-pharmacological (e.g., rehabilitation) treatments and ergonomic interventions. The ongoing joint use of specific algorithms and sensors leads to an intelligent, accurate, and precise characterization of human motion.

Machine learning provides systems with the ability to automatically learn and improve from data and experience without human intervention or assistance and without being explicitly programmed as well as humans do or better. Machine learning is driven by the computational challenges of building statistical models from massive data sets: it is the intersection of statistics, trying to find relationships from data and computer science, realizing efficient computing algorithms.

Many branches of medicine and others, such as robotics, ergonomics, and sports, can benefit from the use of machine learning approaches and sensors.

This Special Issue aims to collect the best scientific contributions capable of determining significant improvements on the above-described topic.

Potential topics include but are not limited to:

Human movement analysis and machine learning categorization;
Machine-learning-based diagnostic algorithms of human movement disorders;
Machine learning and movement-analysis-based clinical decision in human movement disorders;
Machine learning for biomechanical risk classification in manual handling activities in the workplace;
Wearable wireless devices for movement analysis and machine learning procedures;
Computational models in machine learning and sensors for movement analysis;
Wearable wireless and machine learning communication systems in human movement biomechanics.

Dr. Mariano Serrao
Dr. Alberto Ranavolo
Guest Editors

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Keywords

machine learning
neural network
biomechanics
human movement
wearable devices
movement disorders
movement analysis
motor function

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

14 pages, 3862 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Lower-Limb Muscle Synergies Between Young and Old People During Cycling Based on Electromyography Sensors—A Preliminary Cross-Sectional Study

by Li Kong, Kun Yang, Haojie Li, Xie Wu and Qiang Zhang

Sensors 2024, 24(20), 6755; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24206755 - 21 Oct 2024

Viewed by 692

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to analyze the lower-limb muscle synergies of young and older adults during stationary cycling across various mechanical conditions to reveal adaptive strategies employed by the elderly to address various common pedaling tasks and function degradation. By comparing lower-limb muscle synergies during stationary cycling between young and old people, this study examined changes in muscle synergy patterns during exercise in older individuals. This is crucial for understanding neuromuscular degeneration and changes in movement patterns in older individuals. Sixteen young and sixteen older experienced cyclists were recruited to perform stationary cycling tasks at two levels of power (60 and 100 W) and three cadences (40, 60, and 90 rpm) in random order. The lower-limb muscle synergies and their inter- and intra-individual variability were analyzed. Three synergies were extracted in this study under all riding conditions in both groups while satisfying overall variance accounted for (VAF) > 85% and muscle VAF > 75%. The older adults exhibited lower variability in synergy vector two and a higher trend in the variability of activation coefficient three, as determined by calculating the variance ratio. Further analyses of muscle synergy structures revealed increased weighting in major contribution muscles, the forward-shifting peak activation in synergy one, and lower peak magnitude in synergy three among older adults. To produce the same cycling power and cadence as younger individuals, older adults make adaptive adjustments in muscle control—increased weighting in major contribution muscles, greater consistency in the use of primary force-producing synergies, and earlier peak activation of subsequent synergy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combining Machine Learning and Sensors in Human Movement Biomechanics)

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15 pages, 6839 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Quadriceps Muscle Fatigue on Ankle Joint Compensation Strategies During Single-Leg Vertical Jump Landing

by Chen Chen, Huiyu Zhou, Datao Xu, Xiangli Gao, Liangliang Xiang and Yaodong Gu

Sensors 2024, 24(20), 6712; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24206712 - 18 Oct 2024

Viewed by 726

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of quadriceps fatigue on lower limb biomechanics during the landing phase of a single-leg vertical jump (SLJ) in 25 amateur male basketball players from Ningbo University. Fatigue was induced through single-leg knee flexion and extension exercises until task failure. Kinematic and dynamic data were collected pre-fatigue (PRF) and post-fatigue (POF) using the Vicon motion capture system and the AMTI force platform and analyzed using an OpenSim musculoskeletal model. Paired sample t-tests revealed significant changes in knee and hip biomechanics under different fatigue conditions, with knee joint angle (p < 0.001), velocity (p = 0.006), moment (p = 0.006), and power (p = 0.036) showing significant alterations. Hip joint angle (p = 0.002), moment (p = 0.033), and power (p < 0.001) also exhibited significant changes. Muscle activation and joint power were significantly higher in the POF condition, while joint stiffness was lower. These findings suggest that quadriceps fatigue leads to biomechanical adjustments in the knee and hip joints, which may increase the risk of injury despite aiding in landing stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combining Machine Learning and Sensors in Human Movement Biomechanics)

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25 pages, 2861 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simplification of Mobility Tests and Data Processing to Increase Applicability of Wearable Sensors as Diagnostic Tools for Parkinson’s Disease

by Rana M. Khalil, Lisa M. Shulman, Ann L. Gruber-Baldini, Sunita Shakya, Rebecca Fenderson, Maxwell Van Hoven, Jeffrey M. Hausdorff, Rainer von Coelln and Michael P. Cummings

Sensors 2024, 24(15), 4983; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24154983 - 1 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1423

Abstract

Quantitative mobility analysis using wearable sensors, while promising as a diagnostic tool for Parkinson’s disease (PD), is not commonly applied in clinical settings. Major obstacles include uncertainty regarding the best protocol for instrumented mobility testing and subsequent data processing, as well as the added workload and complexity of this multi-step process. To simplify sensor-based mobility testing in diagnosing PD, we analyzed data from 262 PD participants and 50 controls performing several motor tasks wearing a sensor on their lower back containing a triaxial accelerometer and a triaxial gyroscope. Using ensembles of heterogeneous machine learning models incorporating a range of classifiers trained on a set of sensor features, we show that our models effectively differentiate between participants with PD and controls, both for mixed-stage PD (92.6% accuracy) and a group selected for mild PD only (89.4% accuracy). Omitting algorithmic segmentation of complex mobility tasks decreased the diagnostic accuracy of our models, as did the inclusion of kinesiological features. Feature importance analysis revealed that Timed Up and Go (TUG) tasks to contribute the highest-yield predictive features, with only minor decreases in accuracy for models based on cognitive TUG as a single mobility task. Our machine learning approach facilitates major simplification of instrumented mobility testing without compromising predictive performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combining Machine Learning and Sensors in Human Movement Biomechanics)

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16 pages, 2037 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Elbow Gesture Recognition with an Array of Inductive Sensors and Machine Learning

by Alma Abbasnia, Maryam Ravan and Reza K. Amineh

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4202; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134202 - 28 Jun 2024

Viewed by 791

Abstract

This work presents a novel approach for elbow gesture recognition using an array of inductive sensors and a machine learning algorithm (MLA). This paper describes the design of the inductive sensor array integrated into a flexible and wearable sleeve. The sensor array consists of coils sewn onto the sleeve, which form an LC tank circuit along with the externally connected inductors and capacitors. Changes in the elbow position modulate the inductance of these coils, allowing the sensor array to capture a range of elbow movements. The signal processing and random forest MLA to recognize 10 different elbow gestures are described. Rigorous evaluation on 8 subjects and data augmentation, which leveraged the dataset to 1270 trials per gesture, enabled the system to achieve remarkable accuracy of 98.3% and 98.5% using 5-fold cross-validation and leave-one-subject-out cross-validation, respectively. The test performance was then assessed using data collected from five new subjects. The high classification accuracy of 94% demonstrates the generalizability of the designed system. The proposed solution addresses the limitations of existing elbow gesture recognition designs and offers a practical and effective approach for intuitive human–machine interaction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combining Machine Learning and Sensors in Human Movement Biomechanics)

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12 pages, 3192 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Gait Event Detection and Travel Distance Using Waist-Worn Accelerometers across a Range of Speeds: Automated Approach

by Albara Ah Ramli, Xin Liu, Kelly Berndt, Chen-Nee Chuah, Erica Goude, Lynea B. Kaethler, Amanda Lopez, Alina Nicorici, Corey Owens, David Rodriguez, Jane Wang, Daniel Aranki, Craig M. McDonald and Erik K. Henricson

Sensors 2024, 24(4), 1155; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041155 - 9 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1726

Abstract

Estimation of temporospatial clinical features of gait (CFs), such as step count and length, step duration, step frequency, gait speed, and distance traveled, is an important component of community-based mobility evaluation using wearable accelerometers. However, accurate unsupervised computerized measurement of CFs of individuals with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) who have progressive loss of ambulatory mobility is difficult due to differences in patterns and magnitudes of acceleration across their range of attainable gait velocities. This paper proposes a novel calibration method. It aims to detect steps, estimate stride lengths, and determine travel distance. The approach involves a combination of clinical observation, machine-learning-based step detection, and regression-based stride length prediction. The method demonstrates high accuracy in children with DMD and typically developing controls (TDs) regardless of the participant’s level of ability. Fifteen children with DMD and fifteen TDs underwent supervised clinical testing across a range of gait speeds using 10 m or 25 m run/walk (10 MRW, 25 MRW), 100 m run/walk (100 MRW), 6-min walk (6 MWT), and free-walk (FW) evaluations while wearing a mobile-phone-based accelerometer at the waist near the body’s center of mass. Following calibration by a trained clinical evaluator, CFs were extracted from the accelerometer data using a multi-step machine-learning-based process and the results were compared to ground-truth observation data. Model predictions vs. observed values for step counts, distance traveled, and step length showed a strong correlation (Pearson’s r = −0.9929 to 0.9986, p < 0.0001). The estimates demonstrated a mean (SD) percentage error of 1.49% (7.04%) for step counts, 1.18% (9.91%) for distance traveled, and 0.37% (7.52%) for step length compared to ground-truth observations for the combined 6 MWT, 100 MRW, and FW tasks. Our study findings indicate that a single waist-worn accelerometer calibrated to an individual’s stride characteristics using our methods accurately measures CFs and estimates travel distances across a common range of gait speeds in both DMD and TD peers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combining Machine Learning and Sensors in Human Movement Biomechanics)

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23 pages, 3681 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gait Characterization in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) Using a Single-Sensor Accelerometer: Classical Machine Learning and Deep Learning Approaches

by Albara Ah Ramli, Xin Liu, Kelly Berndt, Erica Goude, Jiahui Hou, Lynea B. Kaethler, Rex Liu, Amanda Lopez, Alina Nicorici, Corey Owens, David Rodriguez, Jane Wang, Huanle Zhang, Daniel Aranki, Craig M. McDonald and Erik K. Henricson

Sensors 2024, 24(4), 1123; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041123 - 8 Feb 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2131

Abstract

Differences in gait patterns of children with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and typically developing (TD) peers are visible to the eye, but quantifications of those differences outside of the gait laboratory have been elusive. In this work, we measured vertical, mediolateral, and anteroposterior acceleration using a waist-worn iPhone accelerometer during ambulation across a typical range of velocities. Fifteen TD and fifteen DMD children from 3 to 16 years of age underwent eight walking/running activities, including five 25 m walk/run speed-calibration tests at a slow walk to running speeds (SC-L1 to SC-L5), a 6-min walk test (6MWT), a 100 m fast walk/jog/run (100MRW), and a free walk (FW). For clinical anchoring purposes, participants completed a Northstar Ambulatory Assessment (NSAA). We extracted temporospatial gait clinical features (CFs) and applied multiple machine learning (ML) approaches to differentiate between DMD and TD children using extracted temporospatial gait CFs and raw data. Extracted temporospatial gait CFs showed reduced step length and a greater mediolateral component of total power (TP) consistent with shorter strides and Trendelenberg-like gait commonly observed in DMD. ML approaches using temporospatial gait CFs and raw data varied in effectiveness at differentiating between DMD and TD controls at different speeds, with an accuracy of up to 100%. We demonstrate that by using ML with accelerometer data from a consumer-grade smartphone, we can capture DMD-associated gait characteristics in toddlers to teens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combining Machine Learning and Sensors in Human Movement Biomechanics)

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14 pages, 2264 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fall Risk Assessment in Stroke Survivors: A Machine Learning Model Using Detailed Motion Data from Common Clinical Tests and Motor-Cognitive Dual-Tasking

by Masoud Abdollahi, Ehsan Rashedi, Sonia Jahangiri, Pranav Madhav Kuber, Nasibeh Azadeh-Fard and Mary Dombovy

Sensors 2024, 24(3), 812; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030812 - 26 Jan 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2015

Abstract

Background: Falls are common and dangerous for stroke survivors. Current fall risk assessment methods rely on subjective scales. Objective sensor-based methods could improve prediction accuracy. Objective: Develop machine learning models using inertial sensors to objectively classify fall risk in stroke survivors. Determine optimal sensor configurations and clinical test protocols. Methods: 21 stroke survivors performed balance, Timed Up and Go, 10 Meter Walk, and Sit-to-Stand tests with and without dual-tasking. A total of 8 motion sensors captured lower limb and trunk kinematics, and 92 spatiotemporal gait and clinical features were extracted. Supervised models—Support Vector Machine, Logistic Regression, and Random Forest—were implemented to classify high vs. low fall risk. Sensor setups and test combinations were evaluated. Results: The Random Forest model achieved 91% accuracy using dual-task balance sway and Timed Up and Go walk time features. Single thorax sensor models performed similarly to multi-sensor models. Balance and Timed Up and Go best-predicted fall risk. Conclusion: Machine learning models using minimal inertial sensors during clinical assessments can accurately quantify fall risk in stroke survivors. Single thorax sensor setups are effective. Findings demonstrate a feasible objective fall screening approach to assist rehabilitation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combining Machine Learning and Sensors in Human Movement Biomechanics)

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13 pages, 4885 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Accurate Monitoring of 24-h Real-World Movement Behavior in People with Cerebral Palsy Is Possible Using Multiple Wearable Sensors and Deep Learning

by Ivana Bardino Novosel, Anina Ritterband-Rosenbaum, Georgios Zampoukis, Jens Bo Nielsen and Jakob Lorentzen

Sensors 2023, 23(22), 9045; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23229045 - 8 Nov 2023

Viewed by 2457

Abstract

Monitoring and quantifying movement behavior is crucial for improving the health of individuals with cerebral palsy (CP). We have modeled and trained an image-based Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to recognize specific movement classifiers relevant to individuals with CP. This study evaluates CNN’s performance and determines the feasibility of 24-h recordings. Seven sensors provided accelerometer and gyroscope data from 14 typically developed adults during videotaped physical activity. The performance of the CNN was assessed against test data and human video annotation. For feasibility testing, one typically developed adult and one adult with CP wore sensors for 24 h. The CNN demonstrated exceptional performance against test data, with a mean accuracy of 99.7%. Its general true positives (TP) and true negatives (TN) were 1.00. Against human annotators, performance was high, with mean accuracy at 83.4%, TP 0.84, and TN 0.83. Twenty-four-hour recordings were successful without data loss or adverse events. Participants wore sensors for the full wear time, and the data output were credible. We conclude that monitoring real-world movement behavior in individuals with CP is possible with multiple wearable sensors and CNN. This is of great value for identifying functional decline and informing new interventions, leading to improved outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combining Machine Learning and Sensors in Human Movement Biomechanics)

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21 pages, 3484 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electroencephalography Signal Analysis for Human Activities Classification: A Solution Based on Machine Learning and Motor Imagery

by Tarciana C. de Brito Guerra, Taline Nóbrega, Edgard Morya, Allan de M. Martins and Vicente A. de Sousa, Jr.

Sensors 2023, 23(9), 4277; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23094277 - 26 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3058

Abstract

Electroencephalography (EEG) is a fundamental tool for understanding the brain’s electrical activity related to human motor activities. Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) uses such electrical activity to develop assistive technologies, especially those directed at people with physical disabilities. However, extracting signal features and patterns is still complex, sometimes delegated to machine learning (ML) algorithms. Therefore, this work aims to develop a ML based on the Random Forest algorithm to classify EEG signals from subjects performing real and imagery motor activities. The interpretation and correct classification of EEG signals allow the development of tools controlled by cognitive processes. We evaluated our ML Random Forest algorithm using a consumer and a research-grade EEG system. Random Forest efficiently distinguishes imagery and real activities and defines the related body part, even with consumer-grade EEG. However, interpersonal variability of the EEG signals negatively affects the classification process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combining Machine Learning and Sensors in Human Movement Biomechanics)

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26 pages, 7616 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Machine Learning Approach to Support the Detection of Parkinson’s Disease in IMU-Based Gait Analysis

by Dante Trabassi, Mariano Serrao, Tiwana Varrecchia, Alberto Ranavolo, Gianluca Coppola, Roberto De Icco, Cristina Tassorelli and Stefano Filippo Castiglia

Sensors 2022, 22(10), 3700; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22103700 - 12 May 2022

Cited by 52 | Viewed by 5597

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine which supervised machine learning (ML) algorithm can most accurately classify people with Parkinson’s disease (pwPD) from speed-matched healthy subjects (HS) based on a selected minimum set of IMU-derived gait features. Twenty-two gait features were extrapolated from the trunk acceleration patterns of 81 pwPD and 80 HS, including spatiotemporal, pelvic kinematics, and acceleration-derived gait stability indexes. After a three-level feature selection procedure, seven gait features were considered for implementing five ML algorithms: support vector machine (SVM), artificial neural network, decision trees (DT), random forest (RF), and K-nearest neighbors. Accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score were calculated. SVM, DT, and RF showed the best classification performances, with prediction accuracy higher than 80% on the test set. The conceptual model of approaching ML that we proposed could reduce the risk of overrepresenting multicollinear gait features in the model, reducing the risk of overfitting in the test performances while fostering the explainability of the results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combining Machine Learning and Sensors in Human Movement Biomechanics)

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10 pages, 3266 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Artificial Neural Network Detects Hip Muscle Forces as Determinant for Harmonic Walking in People after Stroke

by Marco Iosa, Maria Grazia Benedetti, Gabriella Antonucci, Stefano Paolucci and Giovanni Morone

Sensors 2022, 22(4), 1374; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22041374 - 11 Feb 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2330

Abstract

Many recent studies have highlighted that the harmony of physiological walking is based on a specific proportion between the durations of the phases of the gait cycle. When this proportion is close to the so-called golden ratio (about 1.618), the gait cycle assumes an autosimilar fractal structure. In stroke patients this harmony is altered, but it is unclear which factor is associated with the ratios between gait phases because these relationships are probably not linear. We used an artificial neural network to determine the weights associable to each factor for determining the ratio between gait phases and hence the harmony of walking. As expected, the gait ratio obtained as the ratio between stride duration and stance duration was found to be associated with walking speed and stride length, but also with hip muscle forces. These muscles could be important for exploiting the recovery of energy typical of the pendular mechanism of walking. Our study also highlighted that the results of an artificial neural network should be associated with a reliability analysis, being a non-deterministic approach. A good level of reliability was found for the findings of our study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combining Machine Learning and Sensors in Human Movement Biomechanics)

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Review

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34 pages, 926 KiB

Open AccessReview

Objective Measurement of Posture and Movement in Young Children Using Wearable Sensors and Customised Mathematical Approaches: A Systematic Review

by Danica Hendry, Andrew L. Rohl, Charlotte Lund Rasmussen, Juliana Zabatiero, Dylan P. Cliff, Simon S. Smith, Janelle Mackenzie, Cassandra L. Pattinson, Leon Straker and Amity Campbell

Sensors 2023, 23(24), 9661; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23249661 - 6 Dec 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1781

Abstract

Given the importance of young children’s postures and movements to health and development, robust objective measures are required to provide high-quality evidence. This study aimed to systematically review the available evidence for objective measurement of young (0–5 years) children’s posture and movement using machine learning and other algorithm methods on accelerometer data. From 1663 papers, a total of 20 papers reporting on 18 studies met the inclusion criteria. Papers were quality-assessed and data extracted and synthesised on sample, postures and movements identified, sensors used, model development, and accuracy. A common limitation of studies was a poor description of their sample data, yet over half scored adequate/good on their overall study design quality assessment. There was great diversity in all aspects examined, with evidence of increasing sophistication in approaches used over time. Model accuracy varied greatly, but for a range of postures and movements, models developed on a reasonable-sized (n > 25) sample were able to achieve an accuracy of >80%. Issues related to model development are discussed and implications for future research outlined. The current evidence suggests the rapidly developing field of machine learning has clear potential to enable the collection of high-quality evidence on the postures and movements of young children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combining Machine Learning and Sensors in Human Movement Biomechanics)

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