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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Sensors and Robotics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2022) | Viewed by 52658

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Dr. Anne Schmitz

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Department of Engineering and Technology, College of Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics and Management, University of Wisconsin-Stout, Menomonie, WI 54751, USA
Interests: computational biomechanics; additive manufacturing; engineering education
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Technology is changing the manufacturing world. For example, sensors are being used to track inventory from the manufacturing floor all the way to a retail shelf or a customer’s door. These types of interconnected systems have been called the fourth industrial revolution, also known as Industry 4.0, and are projected to lower manufacturing costs. As industry moves toward these integrated technologies and lower costs, engineers will need to connect these systems via the Internet of Things (IoT). These engineers will also need to design how these connected systems interact with humans. The focus of this Special Issue is the smart sensors used in these human–robot collaborations. We invite authors to submit original research, new developments, experimental works, and surveys concerning human–robot interactions. Topics of interest include, but are not limited to:

Haptic feedback;
Controller design;
Physical devices using human–robot interactions;
Algorithm development;
Artificial intelligence;
Machine learning;
Interface design.

Dr. Anne Schmitz
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

human–robot collaboration
controller design
artificial intelligence
haptic feedback

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 181 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Human–Robot Collaboration in Industrial Automation: Sensors and Algorithms

by Anne Schmitz

Sensors 2022, 22(15), 5848; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22155848 - 5 Aug 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2116

Abstract

Technology is changing the manufacturing world [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Robot Collaborations in Industrial Automation)

Research

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15 pages, 7938 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Resilient and Effective Task Scheduling Approach for Industrial Human-Robot Collaboration

by Andrea Pupa, Wietse Van Dijk, Christiaan Brekelmans and Cristian Secchi

Sensors 2022, 22(13), 4901; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22134901 - 29 Jun 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2774

Abstract

Effective task scheduling in human-robot collaboration (HRC) scenarios is one of the great challenges of collaborative robotics. The shared workspace inside an industrial setting brings a lot of uncertainties that cannot be foreseen. A prior offline task scheduling strategy is ineffective in dealing with these uncertainties. In this paper, a novel online framework to achieve a resilient and reliable task schedule is presented. The framework can deal with deviations that occur during operation, different operator skills, error by the human or robot, and substitution of actors, while maintaining an efficient schedule by promoting parallel human-robot work. First, the collaborative job and the possible deviations are represented by AND/OR graphs. Subsequently, the proposed architecture chooses the most suitable path to improve the collaboration. If some failures occur, the AND/OR graph is adapted locally, allowing the collaboration to be completed. The framework is validated in an industrial assembly scenario with a Franka Emika Panda collaborative robot. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Robot Collaborations in Industrial Automation)

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20 pages, 2261 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Teleoperation of High-Speed Robot Hand with High-Speed Finger Position Recognition and High-Accuracy Grasp Type Estimation

by Yuji Yamakawa and Koki Yoshida

Sensors 2022, 22(10), 3777; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22103777 - 16 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2731

Abstract

This paper focuses on the teleoperation of a robot hand on the basis of finger position recognition and grasp type estimation. For the finger position recognition, we propose a new method that fuses machine learning and high-speed image-processing techniques. Furthermore, we propose a grasp type estimation method according to the results of the finger position recognition by using decision tree. We developed a teleoperation system with high speed and high responsiveness according to the results of the finger position recognition and grasp type estimation. By using the proposed method and system, we achieved teleoperation of a high-speed robot hand. In particular, we achieved teleoperated robot hand control beyond the speed of human hand motion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Robot Collaborations in Industrial Automation)

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17 pages, 11692 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Human-Following Motion Planning and Control Scheme for Collaborative Robots Based on Human Motion Prediction

by Fahad Iqbal Khawaja, Akira Kanazawa, Jun Kinugawa and Kazuhiro Kosuge

Sensors 2021, 21(24), 8229; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21248229 - 9 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4916

Abstract

Human–Robot Interaction (HRI) for collaborative robots has become an active research topic recently. Collaborative robots assist human workers in their tasks and improve their efficiency. However, the worker should also feel safe and comfortable while interacting with the robot. In this paper, we propose a human-following motion planning and control scheme for a collaborative robot which supplies the necessary parts and tools to a worker in an assembly process in a factory. In our proposed scheme, a 3-D sensing system is employed to measure the skeletal data of the worker. At each sampling time of the sensing system, an optimal delivery position is estimated using the real-time worker data. At the same time, the future positions of the worker are predicted as probabilistic distributions. A Model Predictive Control (MPC)-based trajectory planner is used to calculate a robot trajectory that supplies the required parts and tools to the worker and follows the predicted future positions of the worker. We have installed our proposed scheme in a collaborative robot system with a 2-DOF planar manipulator. Experimental results show that the proposed scheme enables the robot to provide anytime assistance to a worker who is moving around in the workspace while ensuring the safety and comfort of the worker. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Robot Collaborations in Industrial Automation)

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18 pages, 11530 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Human–Machine Differentiation in Speed and Separation Monitoring for Improved Efficiency in Human–Robot Collaboration

by Urban B. Himmelsbach, Thomas M. Wendt, Nikolai Hangst, Philipp Gawron and Lukas Stiglmeier

Sensors 2021, 21(21), 7144; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21217144 - 28 Oct 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3141

Abstract

Human–robot collaborative applications have been receiving increasing attention in industrial applications. The efficiency of the applications is often quite low compared to traditional robotic applications without human interaction. Especially for applications that use speed and separation monitoring, there is potential to increase the efficiency with a cost-effective and easy to implement method. In this paper, we proposed to add human–machine differentiation to the speed and separation monitoring in human–robot collaborative applications. The formula for the protective separation distance was extended with a variable for the kind of object that approaches the robot. Different sensors for differentiation of human and non-human objects are presented. Thermal cameras are used to take measurements in a proof of concept. Through differentiation of human and non-human objects, it is possible to decrease the protective separation distance between the robot and the object and therefore increase the overall efficiency of the collaborative application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Robot Collaborations in Industrial Automation)

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15 pages, 1894 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Uncertainty-Aware Knowledge Distillation for Collision Identification of Collaborative Robots

by Wookyong Kwon, Yongsik Jin and Sang Jun Lee

Sensors 2021, 21(19), 6674; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21196674 - 8 Oct 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3059

Abstract

Human-robot interaction has received a lot of attention as collaborative robots became widely utilized in many industrial fields. Among techniques for human-robot interaction, collision identification is an indispensable element in collaborative robots to prevent fatal accidents. This paper proposes a deep learning method for identifying external collisions in 6-DoF articulated robots. The proposed method expands the idea of CollisionNet, which was previously proposed for collision detection, to identify the locations of external forces. The key contribution of this paper is uncertainty-aware knowledge distillation for improving the accuracy of a deep neural network. Sample-level uncertainties are estimated from a teacher network, and larger penalties are imposed for uncertain samples during the training of a student network. Experiments demonstrate that the proposed method is effective for improving the performance of collision identification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Robot Collaborations in Industrial Automation)

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23 pages, 6226 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Improved Mutual Understanding for Human-Robot Collaboration: Combining Human-Aware Motion Planning with Haptic Feedback Devices for Communicating Planned Trajectory

by Stefan Grushko, Aleš Vysocký, Petr Oščádal, Michal Vocetka, Petr Novák and Zdenko Bobovský

Sensors 2021, 21(11), 3673; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21113673 - 25 May 2021

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 5400

Abstract

In a collaborative scenario, the communication between humans and robots is a fundamental aspect to achieve good efficiency and ergonomics in the task execution. A lot of research has been made related to enabling a robot system to understand and predict human behaviour, allowing the robot to adapt its motion to avoid collisions with human workers. Assuming the production task has a high degree of variability, the robot’s movements can be difficult to predict, leading to a feeling of anxiety in the worker when the robot changes its trajectory and approaches since the worker has no information about the planned movement of the robot. Additionally, without information about the robot’s movement, the human worker cannot effectively plan own activity without forcing the robot to constantly replan its movement. We propose a novel approach to communicating the robot’s intentions to a human worker. The improvement to the collaboration is presented by introducing haptic feedback devices, whose task is to notify the human worker about the currently planned robot’s trajectory and changes in its status. In order to verify the effectiveness of the developed human-machine interface in the conditions of a shared collaborative workspace, a user study was designed and conducted among 16 participants, whose objective was to accurately recognise the goal position of the robot during its movement. Data collected during the experiment included both objective and subjective parameters. Statistically significant results of the experiment indicated that all the participants could improve their task completion time by over 45% and generally were more subjectively satisfied when completing the task with equipped haptic feedback devices. The results also suggest the usefulness of the developed notification system since it improved users’ awareness about the motion plan of the robot. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Robot Collaborations in Industrial Automation)

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20 pages, 2864 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Mixed-Perception Approach for Safe Human–Robot Collaboration in Industrial Automation

by Fatemeh Mohammadi Amin, Maryam Rezayati, Hans Wernher van de Venn and Hossein Karimpour

Sensors 2020, 20(21), 6347; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216347 - 7 Nov 2020

Cited by 51 | Viewed by 8104

Abstract

Digital-enabled manufacturing systems require a high level of automation for fast and low-cost production but should also present flexibility and adaptiveness to varying and dynamic conditions in their environment, including the presence of human beings; however, this presence of workers in the shared workspace with robots decreases the productivity, as the robot is not aware about the human position and intention, which leads to concerns about human safety. This issue is addressed in this work by designing a reliable safety monitoring system for collaborative robots (cobots). The main idea here is to significantly enhance safety using a combination of recognition of human actions using visual perception and at the same time interpreting physical human–robot contact by tactile perception. Two datasets containing contact and vision data are collected by using different volunteers. The action recognition system classifies human actions using the skeleton representation of the latter when entering the shared workspace and the contact detection system distinguishes between intentional and incidental interactions if physical contact between human and cobot takes place. Two different deep learning networks are used for human action recognition and contact detection, which in combination, are expected to lead to the enhancement of human safety and an increase in the level of cobot perception about human intentions. The results show a promising path for future AI-driven solutions in safe and productive human–robot collaboration (HRC) in industrial automation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Robot Collaborations in Industrial Automation)

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25 pages, 10939 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Application of a Tandem Force Sensor

by Zhijian Zhang, Youping Chen and Dailin Zhang

Sensors 2020, 20(21), 6042; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216042 - 23 Oct 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2683

Abstract

In robot teaching for contact tasks, it is necessary to not only accurately perceive the traction force exerted by hands, but also to perceive the contact force at the robot end. This paper develops a tandem force sensor to detect traction and contact forces. As a component of the tandem force sensor, a cylindrical traction force sensor is developed to detect the traction force applied by hands. Its structure is designed to be suitable for humans to operate, and the mechanical model of its cylinder-shaped elastic structural body has been analyzed. After calibration, the cylindrical traction force sensor is proven to be able to detect forces/moments with small errors. Then, a tandem force sensor is developed based on the developed cylindrical traction force sensor and a wrist force sensor. The robot teaching experiment of drawer switches were made and the results confirm that the developed traction force sensor is simple to operate and the tandem force sensor can achieve the perception of the traction and contact forces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Robot Collaborations in Industrial Automation)

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Review

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37 pages, 2247 KiB

Open AccessReview

Reinforcement Learning Approaches in Social Robotics

by Neziha Akalin and Amy Loutfi

Sensors 2021, 21(4), 1292; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041292 - 11 Feb 2021

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 12049

Abstract

This article surveys reinforcement learning approaches in social robotics. Reinforcement learning is a framework for decision-making problems in which an agent interacts through trial-and-error with its environment to discover an optimal behavior. Since interaction is a key component in both reinforcement learning and social robotics, it can be a well-suited approach for real-world interactions with physically embodied social robots. The scope of the paper is focused particularly on studies that include social physical robots and real-world human-robot interactions with users. We present a thorough analysis of reinforcement learning approaches in social robotics. In addition to a survey, we categorize existent reinforcement learning approaches based on the used method and the design of the reward mechanisms. Moreover, since communication capability is a prominent feature of social robots, we discuss and group the papers based on the communication medium used for reward formulation. Considering the importance of designing the reward function, we also provide a categorization of the papers based on the nature of the reward. This categorization includes three major themes: interactive reinforcement learning, intrinsically motivated methods, and task performance-driven methods. The benefits and challenges of reinforcement learning in social robotics, evaluation methods of the papers regarding whether or not they use subjective and algorithmic measures, a discussion in the view of real-world reinforcement learning challenges and proposed solutions, the points that remain to be explored, including the approaches that have thus far received less attention is also given in the paper. Thus, this paper aims to become a starting point for researchers interested in using and applying reinforcement learning methods in this particular research field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Robot Collaborations in Industrial Automation)

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Other

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17 pages, 2934 KiB

Open AccessLetter

A Framework for Human-Robot-Human Physical Interaction Based on N-Player Game Theory

by Rui Zou, Yubin Liu, Jie Zhao and Hegao Cai

Sensors 2020, 20(17), 5005; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20175005 - 3 Sep 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3637

Abstract

In order to analyze the complex interactive behaviors between the robot and two humans, this paper presents an adaptive optimal control framework for human-robot-human physical interaction. N-player linear quadratic differential game theory is used to describe the system under study. N-player differential game theory can not be used directly in actual scenerie, since the robot cannot know humans’ control objectives in advance. In order to let the robot know humans’ control objectives, the paper presents an online estimation method to identify unknown humans’ control objectives based on the recursive least squares algorithm. The Nash equilibrium solution of human-robot-human interaction is obtained by solving the coupled Riccati equation. Adaptive optimal control can be achieved during the human-robot-human physical interaction. The effectiveness of the proposed method is demonstrated by rigorous theoretical analysis and simulations. The simulation results show that the proposed controller can achieve adaptive optimal control during the interaction between the robot and two humans. Compared with the LQR controller, the proposed controller has more superior performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Robot Collaborations in Industrial Automation)

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