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Viruses
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SARS-CoV-2: Vaccine Design and Host Immunity
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SARS-CoV-2: Vaccine Design and Host Immunity

A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "Viral Immunology, Vaccines, and Antivirals".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 December 2023) | Viewed by 14646

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Vasso Apostolopoulos

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC 3011, Australia
Interests: immunology; protein crystallography; medicinal chemistry; cellular and molecular biology; extensive translational research; clinical trials; vaccines; drugs; healthy ageing; chronic diseases; inflammation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Vaccines save between 2 and 3 million lives each year. Vaccines alone were responsible for eradicating smallpox, and since the development of the first formal vaccine in the 1700s, over 30 different infectious diseases are prevented with vaccines, such as, polio, meningitis, tetanus, chickenpox, human papilloma virus, and, more recently, COVID-19. Various techniques are used to develop vaccines, including peptide-, protein-, DNA-, mRNA-, viral-vector-, cellular-, or live-attenuated-virus-based vaccines. In addition, novel delivery systems and adjuvants are incorporated into vaccine design for the enhanced stimulation of humoral and cellular immunity.

Since the advent of the current pandemic, SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19), has led to millions of cases and deaths worldwide. The development of effective therapeutics is an urgent global priority to stop the spread of COVID-19 infections and prevent further fatalities. As such, several vaccine platforms have been designed with significant pre-clinical, human clinical trials and roll-outs.

In this Special Issue of Viruses, the focus will be on the development of vaccine platforms with effectiveness data from in vitro, in vivo, in silico, pre-clinical, and human clinical trials. Long term protection studies of roll-out vaccines are also welcome.

This Special Issue will include reviews and original research papers on vaccine design and host immunity against the SARS-CoV-2 virus which causes COVID-19.

Prof. Dr. Vasso Apostolopoulos
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Viruses is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • vaccine platforms
  • peptide-based vaccines
  • synthetic-based vaccines
  • protein-based vaccines
  • DNA-based vaccines
  • viral-vector-based vaccines
  • live-attenuated-based vaccines
  • mRNA-based vaccines
  • dendritic-cells-based vaccines
  • antigen presenting cell targeted vaccines
  • cell-penetrating peptide-based vaccines
  • adjuvants
  • carriers
  • dendrimers
  • nanoparticle-based vaccines
  • cellular immunity
  • humoral immunity
  • neutralizing antibodies

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 1734 KiB  
Article
Humoral Responses Elicited by SARS-CoV-2 mRNA Vaccine in People Living with HIV
by Lorie Marchitto, Debashree Chatterjee, Shilei Ding, Gabrielle Gendron-Lepage, Alexandra Tauzin, Marianne Boutin, Mehdi Benlarbi, Halima Medjahed, Mohamed Sylla, Hélène Lanctôt, Madeleine Durand, Andrés Finzi and Cécile Tremblay
Viruses 2023, 15(10), 2004; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15102004 - 26 Sep 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1443
Abstract
While mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccination elicits strong humoral responses in the general population, humoral responses in people living with HIV (PLWH) remain to be clarified. Here, we conducted a longitudinal study of vaccine immunogenicity elicited after two and three doses of mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccine [...] Read more.
While mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccination elicits strong humoral responses in the general population, humoral responses in people living with HIV (PLWH) remain to be clarified. Here, we conducted a longitudinal study of vaccine immunogenicity elicited after two and three doses of mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in PLWH stratified by their CD4 count. We measured the capacity of the antibodies elicited by vaccination to bind the Spike glycoprotein of different variants of concern (VOCs). We also evaluated the Fc-mediated effector functions of these antibodies by measuring their ability to eliminate CEM.NKr cells stably expressing SARS-CoV-2 Spikes. Finally, we measured the relative capacity of the antibodies to neutralize authentic SARS-CoV-2 virus after the third dose of mRNA vaccine. We found that after two doses of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine, PLWH with a CD4 count < 250/mm3 had lower levels of anti-RBD IgG antibodies compared to PLWH with a CD4 count > 250/mm3 (p < 0.05). A third dose increased these levels and importantly, no major differences were observed in their capacity to mediate Fc-effector functions and neutralize authentic SARS-CoV-2. Overall, our work demonstrates the importance of mRNA vaccine boosting in immuno-compromised individuals presenting low levels of CD4. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue SARS-CoV-2: Vaccine Design and Host Immunity)
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25 pages, 5908 KiB  
Article
The Stereotypic Response of the Pulmonary Vasculature to Respiratory Viral Infections: Findings in Mouse Models of SARS-CoV-2, Influenza A and Gammaherpesvirus Infections
by Simon De Neck, Rebekah Penrice-Randal, Jordan J. Clark, Parul Sharma, Eleanor G. Bentley, Adam Kirby, Daniele F. Mega, Ximeng Han, Andrew Owen, Julian A. Hiscox, James P. Stewart and Anja Kipar
Viruses 2023, 15(8), 1637; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15081637 - 27 Jul 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2281
Abstract
The respiratory system is the main target of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the cause of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) where acute respiratory distress syndrome is considered the leading cause of death. Changes in pulmonary blood vessels, among which an endothelialitis/endotheliitis [...] Read more.
The respiratory system is the main target of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the cause of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) where acute respiratory distress syndrome is considered the leading cause of death. Changes in pulmonary blood vessels, among which an endothelialitis/endotheliitis has been particularly emphasized, have been suggested to play a central role in the development of acute lung injury. Similar vascular changes are also observed in animal models of COVID-19. The present study aimed to determine whether the latter are specific for SARS-CoV-2 infection, investigating the vascular response in the lungs of mice infected with SARS-CoV-2 and other respiratory viruses (influenza A and murine gammaherpesvirus) by in situ approaches (histology, immunohistology, morphometry) combined with RNA sequencing and bioinformatic analysis. Non-selective recruitment of monocytes and T and B cells from larger muscular veins and arteries was observed with all viruses, matched by a comparable transcriptional response. There was no evidence of endothelial cell infection in any of the models. Both the morphological investigation and the transcriptomics approach support the interpretation that the lung vasculature in mice mounts a stereotypic response to alveolar and respiratory epithelial damage. This may have implications for the treatment and management of respiratory disease in humans. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue SARS-CoV-2: Vaccine Design and Host Immunity)
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Review

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26 pages, 2276 KiB  
Review
COVID-19 Variants and Vaccine Development
by Ziyao Zhao, Sahra Bashiri, Zyta M. Ziora, Istvan Toth and Mariusz Skwarczynski
Viruses 2024, 16(5), 757; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16050757 - 10 May 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2151
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the global pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome 2 virus (SARS-CoV-2) infection, has caused millions of infections and fatalities worldwide. Extensive SARS-CoV-2 research has been conducted to develop therapeutic drugs and prophylactic vaccines, and even though some drugs [...] Read more.
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the global pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome 2 virus (SARS-CoV-2) infection, has caused millions of infections and fatalities worldwide. Extensive SARS-CoV-2 research has been conducted to develop therapeutic drugs and prophylactic vaccines, and even though some drugs have been approved to treat SARS-CoV-2 infection, treatment efficacy remains limited. Therefore, preventive vaccination has been implemented on a global scale and represents the primary approach to combat the COVID-19 pandemic. Approved vaccines vary in composition, although vaccine design has been based on either the key viral structural (spike) protein or viral components carrying this protein. Therefore, mutations of the virus, particularly mutations in the S protein, severely compromise the effectiveness of current vaccines and the ability to control COVID-19 infection. This review begins by describing the SARS-CoV-2 viral composition, the mechanism of infection, the role of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, the host defence responses against infection and the most common vaccine designs. Next, this review summarizes the common mutations of SARS-CoV-2 and how these mutations change viral properties, confer immune escape and influence vaccine efficacy. Finally, this review discusses global strategies that have been employed to mitigate the decreases in vaccine efficacy encountered against new variants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue SARS-CoV-2: Vaccine Design and Host Immunity)
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14 pages, 589 KiB  
Review
COVID-19 Vaccines for Optimizing Immunity in the Upper Respiratory Tract
by Ranjan Ramasamy
Viruses 2023, 15(11), 2203; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15112203 - 31 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2654
Abstract
Rapid development and deployment of vaccines greatly reduced mortality and morbidity during the COVID-19 pandemic. The most widely used COVID-19 vaccines approved by national regulatory authorities require intramuscular administration. SARS-CoV-2 initially infects the upper respiratory tract, where the infection can be eliminated with [...] Read more.
Rapid development and deployment of vaccines greatly reduced mortality and morbidity during the COVID-19 pandemic. The most widely used COVID-19 vaccines approved by national regulatory authorities require intramuscular administration. SARS-CoV-2 initially infects the upper respiratory tract, where the infection can be eliminated with little or no symptoms by an effective immune response. Failure to eliminate SARS-CoV-2 in the upper respiratory tract results in lower respiratory tract infections that can lead to severe disease and death. Presently used intramuscularly administered COVID-19 vaccines are effective in reducing severe disease and mortality, but are not entirely able to prevent asymptomatic and mild infections as well as person-to-person transmission of the virus. Individual and population differences also influence susceptibility to infection and the propensity to develop severe disease. This article provides a perspective on the nature and the mode of delivery of COVID-19 vaccines that can optimize protective immunity in the upper respiratory tract to reduce infections and virus transmission as well as severe disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue SARS-CoV-2: Vaccine Design and Host Immunity)
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10 pages, 1388 KiB  
Review
Contemporaneous SARS-CoV-2-Neutralizing Antibodies Mediated by N-glycan Shields
by Leili Baghaie, Fleur Leroy, Mehdi Sheikhi, Abdollah Jafarzadeh, Myron R. Szewczuk and Abdolkarim Sheikhi
Viruses 2023, 15(10), 2079; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15102079 - 12 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1574
Abstract
Mutations and the glycosylation of epitopes can convert immunogenic epitopes into non-immunogenic ones via natural selection or evolutionary pressure, thereby decreasing their sensitivity to neutralizing antibodies. Based on Thomas Francis’s theory, memory B and T cells induced during primary infections or vaccination will [...] Read more.
Mutations and the glycosylation of epitopes can convert immunogenic epitopes into non-immunogenic ones via natural selection or evolutionary pressure, thereby decreasing their sensitivity to neutralizing antibodies. Based on Thomas Francis’s theory, memory B and T cells induced during primary infections or vaccination will freeze the new mutated epitopes specific to naïve B and T cells from the repertoire. On this basis, some researchers argue that the current vaccines derived from the previous strains of the SARS-CoV-2 virus do not increase immunity and may also prevent the immune response against new epitopes. However, evidence shows that even if the binding affinity is reduced, the previous antibodies or T cell receptors (TCRs) can still bind to this new epitope of the Beta, Gamma, and Delta variant if their concentration is high enough (from a booster injection) and neutralize the virus. This paper presents some convincing immunological reasons that may challenge this theory and argue for the continuation of universal vaccination to prevent further mutations of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Simultaneously, the information presented can be used to develop vaccines that target novel epitopes or create new recombinant drugs that do not lose their effectiveness when the virus mutates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue SARS-CoV-2: Vaccine Design and Host Immunity)
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34 pages, 3283 KiB  
Review
COVID-19 Vaccines over Three Years after the Outbreak of the COVID-19 Epidemic
by Aleksandra Anna Zasada, Aniela Darlińska, Aldona Wiatrzyk, Katarzyna Woźnica, Kamila Formińska, Urszula Czajka, Małgorzata Główka, Klaudia Lis and Paulina Górska
Viruses 2023, 15(9), 1786; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15091786 - 23 Aug 2023
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3511
Abstract
The outbreak of COVID-19 started in December 2019 and spread rapidly all over the world. It became clear that the development of an effective vaccine was the only way to stop the pandemic. It was the first time in the history of infectious [...] Read more.
The outbreak of COVID-19 started in December 2019 and spread rapidly all over the world. It became clear that the development of an effective vaccine was the only way to stop the pandemic. It was the first time in the history of infectious diseases that the process of the development of a new vaccine was conducted on such a large scale and accelerated so rapidly. At the end of 2020, the first COVID-19 vaccines were approved for marketing. At the end of March 2023, over three years after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, 199 vaccines were in pre-clinical development and 183 in clinical development. The candidate vaccines in the clinical phase are based on the following platforms: protein subunit, DNA, RNA, non-replication viral vector, replicating viral vector, inactivated virus, virus-like particles, live attenuated virus, replicating viral vector combined with an antigen-presenting cell, non-replication viral vector combined with an antigen-presenting cell, and bacterial antigen-spore expression vector. Some of the new vaccine platforms have been approved for the first time for human application. This review presents COVID-19 vaccines currently available in the world, procedures for assurance of the quality and safety of the vaccines, the vaccinated population, as well as future perspectives for the new vaccine platforms in drug and therapy development for infectious and non-infectious diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue SARS-CoV-2: Vaccine Design and Host Immunity)
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