Search Results (24)

Extreme hydrometeorological events are occurring more often under climate change, increasing the risk for cities in coastal zones and lower river reaches. Such areas are prone to compound flooding (CF), where flood duration and magnitude are amplified by the combined effects of storm surges, onshore winds, long-term sea-level rise, and increasingly frequent rainfall-driven floods. This study assesses the socio-economic risk of residential neighbourhoods (RNs) along the lower reach of the Danė River in the city of Klaipėda, Lithuania, using a composite socio-economic risk index (CSERI) developed in this study under an extreme flood scenario, if the sea level in the south-eastern Baltic Sea rises by 1 m by the end of the century. The results show a strong relationship between water levels in the Klaipėda Strait and the lower reach of the Danė River, confirming a CF regime, where flood magnitude is driven by the interaction between strait water level and river discharge. The CSERI is based on five risk sub-indices (SIs): the building risk SI, road infrastructure risk SI, population risk SI, economic entities risk SI, and cultural heritage risk SI. The assessment identifies RNs at greatest risk under climate change and anthropogenic pressure and indicates priority areas for adaptation measures to reduce potential socio-economic losses. The proposed CSERI provides a practical decision-support tool for sustainable and climate-resilient urban development in coastal cities. Full article

This study compares the performance of two wind farm sites located in Northern Europe: an onshore site and an offshore area in the eastern Baltic Sea region. This study investigates the optimisation of wind farm performance within a fixed project area by maximising annual energy production (AEP) and increasing energy density. Three wake-loss scenarios (≤10%, ≤15%, and ≤20%) were examined to assess the sensitivity of layout optimisation to aerodynamic interaction constraints. Several layout configurations were analysed to reduce wake losses and enhance overall energy output. Wind conditions were assessed using NORA3 reanalysis data, and wake interactions were modelled using the Jensen wake model to estimate AEP. Both wind farms were further compared across key criteria, including cost, power generation efficiency, installation and maintenance requirements, and site availability. Offshore wind farms achieve 1.5–1.7 times higher energy density under similar spatial conditions. However, offshore levelised cost of energy (LCOE) remains roughly 25% higher due to higher capital and infrastructure costs, while onshore LCOE demonstrates better economic performance, driven by lower CAPEX and O&M expenses. The findings highlight the trade-offs between cost efficiency and wake-driven energy performance for onshore and offshore wind development in the eastern Baltic Sea region. Full article

This paper presents the hydrological and meteorological parameters of the Wolfgang storm surge on the southern Baltic Sea coast and the storm’s impact on coastal areas with highly urbanised and developed zones. The surge emerged during a rare cyclonic system that was located over Western Europe in October 2023. A high difference in air pressure between the western and eastern parts of the Baltic coast led to the high-velocity wind blowing from the eastern direction to the centre of the cyclone located over Denmark. It caused high sea levels in the western part of the Baltic Sea. On the German and Danish coasts, the inflow of water at a high wind velocity perpendicular to the coast caused a very high surge of the sea and strong undulation. In this part of the Baltic Sea, the storm caused an increase in the sea level ranging from 1.5 to 2.2 m above average. It was lower on the eastern part of the Polish coast, exceeding 0.9 m above average sea level. The erosion of the base of cliffs ranged from 2 to 7 m, depending on the sea level. The dune erosion was larger but more varied, which resulted from different heights of the beach, at a maximum of up to 18 m. The water run-up reached 5.2 m above mean sea level (AMSL). The run-up parameter is a more accurate indicator of the potential threat than the sea level height. As a result of water run-up on the coast, lowlands situated even as far as 300 m from the shore were flooded. The storm caused significant damage to the coastal infrastructure and harbours. Research was conducted based on field studies and the analysis of digital documentation from websites, with the records of water run-up and the effects of the storm. Field studies were based on measures of coast retreat. Sea levels and wind were studied based on collected data. Full article

Recent years have seen a considerable increase in clean, green electricity output from wind energy (WE). It is crucial to obtain the optimum parameters of the two-parameter Weibull distribution (TPWD) for wind speed (WS) to calculate the potential WE. This paper proposes to use the superEGO (SEGO) along with maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) to obtain optimum parameters of the TWPD for WS data. The results showed that SEGO provided better results compared other optimization algorithms used in this context. Moreover, the potential WE for Gdańsk, a city located by the Baltic Sea in northern Poland, was calculated using parameters obtained by using SEGO. It was observed that SEGO performs the best among other optimization algorithms to find optimum parameters for the two-parameter Weibull distribution along with MLE for wind speed. Full article

This article presents the results of research on the potential development of offshore wind energy in Poland. Wind energy generated in offshore farms is intended to be the second pillar (alongside nuclear power) of Poland’s energy transition, creating the foundation for a zero-emission energy system. The authors constructed a neural network that allowed them to forecast the development of the installed offshore energy capacity for Poland by 2030. For this purpose, the factors that have the greatest impact on the development of wind energy in Poland were identified. This knowledge will facilitate the development of state policy consistent with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the European Green Deal. Since Poland currently does not have installed offshore wind energy capacity, Germany was used as a benchmark to train the model. The research results fill the identified gap: to date, forecasts of offshore development in Poland based on a model trained on German data have not been presented in the literature. The research results show that by 2030, Poland can achieve the goals set by the United Nations, the European Union, and the Polish Energy Policy 2040 (PEP2040). The PEP2040 assumes that Poland should have 5.9 GW of energy installed in offshore wind farms in the Baltic Sea by 2030. The forecast indicates that this will be approximately 5.3 GW, with the difference between these values remaining within the model’s margin of error. Full article

Although wind-assisted ship propulsion (WASP) is an effective technique for reducing the emissions of merchant ships, the best fuel type for complementing WASP remains an open question. This study presents a new original life cycle assessment method for ship fuels that uses a validated ship performance prediction model and actual operation conditions for a WASP ship. As a case study, the method is used to evaluate the fuel consumption and environmental impact of different fuels for a WASP ship operating in the Baltic Sea. Using a novel in-house-developed platform for predicting ship performance under actual operation conditions using hindcast data, the engine and fuel tank were sized while accounting for fluctuating weather conditions over a year. The results showed significant variation in the required fuel tank capacity across fuel types, with liquid hydrogen requiring the largest volume, followed by LNG and ammonia. Additionally, a well-to-wake life cycle assessment revealed that dual-fuel engines using green ammonia and hydrogen exhibit the lowest global warming potential (GWP), while grey ammonia and blue hydrogen have substantially higher GWP levels. Notably, NOx, SOx, and particulate matter emissions were consistently lower for dual-fuel and liquid natural gas scenarios than for single-fuel marine diesel oil engines. These results underscore the importance of selecting both an appropriate fuel type and production method to optimize environmental performance. This study advocates for transitioning to greener fuel options derived from sustainable pathways for WASP ships to mitigate the environmental impact of maritime operations and support global climate change efforts. Full article

This study assesses the wave energy potential and spectral variability in the Väinameri—a semi-sheltered, island-filtered basin on Estonia’s west coast—by combining six months of high-resolution in situ wave spectra with deep learning-enhanced satellite retrievals. Directional spectra were recorded at Rohuküla Harbor using a wave-following LainePoiss buoy from June to December 2024. In parallel, one-dimensional wave spectra were reconstructed from Sentinel-1 SAR imagery using a long short-term memory (LSTM) neural network trained on more than 71,000 collocations with NORA3 WAM hindcasts. Spectral pairs matched within a ±1 h window exhibited strong agreement in the dominant 0.2–0.4 Hz frequency band, while systematic underestimation at higher frequencies reflected both the radar resolution limits and the short-period, wind–sea-dominated nature of the Baltic Sea. Our results confirm that LSTM-enhanced SAR retrievals enable robust bulk and spectral wave characterizations in data-sparse nearshore regions, and offer a practical basis for the site evaluation, device tuning, and survivability testing of pilot-scale wave energy converters under both typical and storm-driven forcing conditions. Full article

The southern Baltic Sea is characterized by highly variable weather conditions, particularly in autumn and winter, when storms, strong westerly winds, and temporary sea ice formation disrupt maritime operations. This study presents a climatographic overview and evaluates key hydrometeorological factors that influence the safe and efficient use of liquefied natural gas (LNG) as bunkering fuel in the region. The analysis draws on long-term meteorological and hydrological datasets (1971–2020), including satellite observations and in situ measurements. It identifies operational constraints, such as wind speed, wave height, visibility, and ice cover, and assesses their impact on LNG logistics and terminal functionality. Thresholds for safe operations are evaluated in accordance with IMO and ISO safety standards. An ice severity forecast for 2011–2030 was developed using the ECHAM5 global climate model under the A1B emission scenario, indicating potential seasonal risks to LNG operations. While baseline safety criteria are generally met, environmental variability in the region may still cause temporary disruptions. Findings underscore the need for resilient port infrastructure, including anti-icing systems, heated transfer equipment, and real-time environmental monitoring, to ensure operational continuity. Integrating weather forecasting into LNG logistics supports uninterrupted deliveries and contributes to EU goals for energy diversification and emissions reduction. The study concludes that strategic investments in LNG infrastructure—tailored to regional climatic conditions—can enhance energy security in the southern Baltic, provided environmental risks are systematically accounted for in operational planning. Full article

The development of offshore wind energy has emerged as a key driver of economic growth and energy transition in Europe, with the Baltic Sea region playing a crucial role in this transformation. This paper examines the impact of offshore wind farm (OWF) supply chains on regional economic development, focusing on the strategic role of ports in facilitating these operations. Particular emphasis is placed on Port Ustka, which has been identified as a potential logistics and service hub for offshore wind projects in Poland’s Exclusive Economic Zone. The study explores the integration of local ports into offshore wind supply chains and their contribution to industrial development, job creation, and infrastructure modernization. Through an analysis of infrastructure parameters, logistical capabilities, and economic impacts, the paper assesses the feasibility of Port Ustka as a service base for major offshore wind projects, such as Baltica 2 and 3. The findings highlight the importance of port infrastructure investments, supply chain optimization, and policy support in maximizing the economic benefits of offshore wind development. By evaluating the challenges and opportunities associated with offshore wind logistics, this paper provides strategic insights for policymakers, investors, and industry stakeholders. The research underscores the necessity of modernizing port facilities, improving transport connections, and fostering local supply chain participation to enhance the efficiency and sustainability of offshore wind operations in the Central Baltic Region. Full article

The availability of energy-bearing resources is a key determinant of the development strategy of the world’s energy systems. In the case of Poland, the wind energy potential of the Baltic Sea provides the basis for the development of offshore wind energy in the country. The processes of transforming solutions towards green technologies require appropriate legislation, significant financial outlays, as well as public support for this dimension of activities. The latter strand requires continuous measurement to dynamically model the energy transition strategy. In the author’s opinion, the available literature does not sufficiently explain this theme in relation to Polish conditions. Hence, it was considered reasonable to investigate the impact of offshore wind energy development in Poland on public opinion in a selected region of Poland, in order to diagnose the current scale of support for the changes taking place, and to identify the main expectations and fears related to this activity, which was assumed as the main objective of the study. The added value of the survey is the analysis of changes in public opinion over time. The methodology used for the research was a study of the scientific literature, with analysis of the results of own and secondary research conducted in Poland. In terms of in-depth research, statistical survey techniques supported by the PQstat programme were used. The results of the survey confirmed significant public support in the surveyed area for offshore wind energy development in Poland (68%). The overall percentage of support for offshore development increased by 5% y/y. Economic considerations for the support of the activities in question with the potential vision of lowering energy prices in the domestic market were confirmed with a result of 65%. It was further confirmed that a key aspect of support for the offshore development strategy in the surveyed region of Poland is the potential for development of the region in relation to offshore farm investments, with a focus on the labour market, with indications of 53% for both themes. Interestingly, there was no concern in relation to the risk of landscape change in an undesirable direction in 2024. Full article

The development of offshore wind farms is an important step toward increasing the share of green energy in Poland’s energy mix, offering promising prospects for the energy industry. However, in addition to numerous benefits, such investments also carry potential risks for the marine environment, including the risk of spills of hazardous substances such as gear oils, hydraulic oils, and lubricants. This paper analyses the potential impact of oil spills from offshore wind farms on the marine ecosystems of the Baltic Sea, taking into account hydrometeorological factors, particularly protected areas (such as Natura 2000 sites) and the intensity of ship traffic in the area of the planned farms. Simulations of spill scenarios are also presented to assess the potential extent of pollution and its impact on the environment. This paper emphasises the importance of advanced monitoring and safety systems in minimising the risk of accidents and responding quickly to possible incidents. The development of offshore wind farms in Poland presents itself as a key element in a sustainable energy development strategy, combining advanced technology with environmental concerns. Full article

This article presents the economic viability of using 10 m wind turbines in households with financial support from the government. The aim of this study was to indicate whether and how state subsidies affect the efficiency and estimated payback periods of wind energy investments for individual households. The research conducted thus far has focused on the analysis of effectiveness, feasibility, and economic profitability, but it has not taken into account government support for the investment readiness of households, which constitutes a research gap in the literature and economic practice. In addition, this study analyzed a new program that is scheduled to come into force this year. The analysis used the Homer Pro software (ver. x64) module, and simulations were performed for three locations in Poland. Due to differences in the location of wind zones, as well as the location of two locations on the Baltic Sea, an additional factor characterizing the studied voivodeships was introduced. Government support may therefore constitute a mechanism for correcting the geographical location and local wind potential. It has been shown that financial support significantly accelerates the payback period, even in locations with weaker wind potential. Complementary and substitutive possibilities for renewable energy sources, such as sun and wind, were indicated. The conclusions from this research can be used by decision makers and individual households to take advantage of government support to shorten the return on investment in wind energy and the validity of this support. Full article

The development of green technology in the world is progressing extremely rapidly. New possibilities for obtaining energy from renewable sources are constantly being sought and existing solutions are being improved. The multifaceted potential of the seas and oceans is an important aspect being taken into account in the development of the energy systems of a number of economies. One dimension of action in this area is the orientation towards offshore wind energy and the construction of offshore wind farms for this purpose. The purpose of this article is to analyse the importance of offshore wind farms in Poland’s energy system and to assess public perception of the changes taking place in this dimension. The article is based on research and critical analysis of the available literature, legal regulations and industry reports, as well as on the results of our own surveys, the scientific findings of which were developed with the application of statistical instruments using PQstat software, ensuring the expected quality of results. The findings of the article indicate the significant importance of offshore wind farms in the creation of Poland’s energy mix, with differing public attitudes towards their construction. Furthermore, the results of the research indicate a differentiated attitude of society towards the construction of offshore wind farms. The main motivation for majority support of the measure in question are economic reasons, which are connected with the expectation of a real price reduction per 1 kW of energy, as well as increased attractiveness of the region due to investments in this area. The main concern with the measure relates to environmental aspects, with concerns about the functioning of ecosystems in light of the construction and subsequent operation of wind farms. Negative public opinion is also signalled in relation to the potential risk of landscape change in a direction that is undesirable for the studied developed coastal tourist region in Poland. Full article

Offshore wind energy is becoming an increasingly important element in the decarbonisation of energy systems. This study aims to estimate the technical potential for offshore wind energy in the Polish exclusive economic zone (EZZ) of the Baltic Sea. Such estimates are necessary to plan the expansion of energy infrastructure. This paper proposes a multi-criteria analysis for the estimation of offshore wind potential and site selection using QGIS software (QGIS Desktop 3.28.6). The criteria include wind velocity, water depth, distance from nature conservation areas, distance from submarine cables and gas pipelines, distance from shipping routes, distance from fishing areas, distance from shipwrecks, and distance from the coastline. The best sites are identified through the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The results show that the total suitable marine area of 16,218.67 square kilometres can be divided into three parts, in which the highly suitable area for offshore wind farms accounts for 17.55%, the moderately suitable area accounts for 48.56%, and the marginally suitable area accounts for 10.26%. Two different wind turbine placement configurations are being considered, in which wind turbines with a nominal capacity of 15 MW are laid out: 2.5 km and 2 km apart from each other. The corresponding overall electrical capacities only in highly suitable areas equal ca. 9 GW and 15 GW, respectively. If this area is extended to also include the moderately suitable parts, these values increase to ca. 31 GW and 50 GW. The results indicate that the technical potential of offshore wind in the Polish EEZ is significant and should be taken into account when designing the future electricity generation mix. Full article

This study combines an interseasonal variation of deposition profiles of fine-particulate-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PM_2.5-bound PAHs) with source apportionment analysis. Comprehensive measurements were conducted in four representative periods of 2019 in the coastal urban region of the Baltic Sea in Poland. The mean daily deposition flux of Σ₁₃PAHs was 229 ng m⁻² day⁻¹, which was lower than in other urban/industrial sites of Europe and Asia. The seasonal PAHs distribution exhibited a clear U-shaped pattern, reaching maximum values in January and December and the minimum in June. A strong influence of local/regional anthropogenic emissions and meteorological factors (precipitation, ambient temperature, wind regimes) was observed. The contribution of medium molecular weight PAHs (fluoranthene, pyrene, benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene) to the total sum of PAHs deposition fluxes increased from 24% in spring to 38% in summer, as a result of photochemistry, urban traffic, and shipping emissions. The highest contribution of 5- and 6-ring PAHs occurred primarily in autumn (55%), followed by winter (39%), spring (35%), and summer (26%). Benzo(a)pyrene (human carcinogenic compound) had a relatively high deposition flux in winter, which was almost 14 and 20 times higher than the values registered in spring and summer, respectively. The FLEXTRA dispersion model was used to study potential pollution regions for PM_2.5-bound PAHs and to investigate changes in the PAH deposition regime in different seasons. This study reveals that the winter contribution of PAHs was mostly impacted by local urban activities (i.e., residential heating and coal-fired power plants). Winter PAH deposition fluxes were particularly associated with atmospheric particles transported from surrounding areas and industrially impacted regions of SE–S–SW Poland and Europe. Full article