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19 pages, 7328 KiB  
Article
Experimental Raw Earth Building for Passive Cooling: A Case Study for Agricultural Application in a Mediterranean Climate
by Antoine Grosjean, Karim Touati, Gaël Alonzo, Homan Cheikh Ravat, Thomas Houot, Yassine El Mendili, Brigitte Nougarèdes and Nicolas Camara
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2603; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152603 - 23 Jul 2025
Viewed by 373
Abstract
Residential and agricultural buildings must prioritize environmental sustainability, employing locally sourced, bio/geologically sustainable materials, and reversible construction methods. Hence, adobe construction and earth-based building methods are experiencing a comeback. This article describes the hygrothermal performances of a real scale agricultural building prototype, in [...] Read more.
Residential and agricultural buildings must prioritize environmental sustainability, employing locally sourced, bio/geologically sustainable materials, and reversible construction methods. Hence, adobe construction and earth-based building methods are experiencing a comeback. This article describes the hygrothermal performances of a real scale agricultural building prototype, in real field conditions, built and designed to be energy-efficient, environmentally friendly, and well-suited for the hot, dry climates typical of the Mediterranean region during summer. The building prototype is a small modular two room construction, one room based on wood (for control purpose) and the other one on raw earth. The experimental set up highlights the passive cooling and humidity regulation potential provided by raw earth and adobe brick technology in agricultural buildings used for fruit and vegetable storage. Such passive cooling alternatives in the Mediterranean climate could reduce the need for energy-intensive and environmentally impactful cold storage rooms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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24 pages, 3944 KiB  
Article
Effect of Rice Husk Addition on the Hygrothermal, Mechanical, and Acoustic Properties of Lightened Adobe Bricks
by Grégoire Banaba, Sébastien Murer, Céline Rousse, Fabien Beaumont, Christophe Bliard, Éric Chatelet and Guillaume Polidori
Materials 2025, 18(14), 3364; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18143364 - 17 Jul 2025
Viewed by 381
Abstract
In the context of efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the building sector, the reintegration of traditional earthen construction into modern architectural and renovation practices offers a sustainable alternative. To address the mechanical and water-resistance limitations of adobe bricks, the use of [...] Read more.
In the context of efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the building sector, the reintegration of traditional earthen construction into modern architectural and renovation practices offers a sustainable alternative. To address the mechanical and water-resistance limitations of adobe bricks, the use of agricultural waste—such as rice husk—is increasingly being explored. This experimental study evaluates the effects of rice husk addition on the mechanical, hygrothermal, and acoustic properties of adobe bricks. Two soil types—one siliceous and one calcareous—were combined with 1, 2, and 3 wt% rice husk to produce bio-based earthen bricks. The influence of rice husk was found to depend strongly on the soils’ mineralogical and granulometric characteristics. The most significant improvements were in hygrothermal performance: at 3 wt%, thermal conductivity was reduced by up to 35% for calcareous soil and 20% for siliceous soil, indicating enhanced insulation. Specific heat capacity also increased with husk content, suggesting better thermal inertia. The moisture buffering capacity, already high in raw soils, is further improved due to increased surface porosity. Mechanically, rice husk incorporation had mixed effects: a modest increase in compressive strength was observed in siliceous soil at 1 wt%, while calcareous soil showed slight improvement at 3 wt%. Acoustic performance remained low across all samples, with minimal gains attributed to limited macro-porosity. These findings highlight the importance of soil composition in optimizing rice husk dosage and suggest promising potential for rice husk-stabilized adobe bricks, especially in thermally demanding environments. Full article
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40 pages, 10369 KiB  
Article
Thermoacoustic, Physical, and Mechanical Properties of Bio-Bricks from Agricultural Waste
by Haidee Yulady Jaramillo, Robin Zuluaga-Gallego, Alejandro Arango-Correa and Ricardo Andrés García-León
Buildings 2025, 15(13), 2183; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15132183 - 23 Jun 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 748
Abstract
This study presents the development and characterization of sustainable bio-bricks incorporating agricultural residues—specifically coffee husks and bovine excreta—as partial substitutes for cement. A mixture design optimized through response surface methodology (RSM) identified the best-performing formulation, namely 960 g of cement, 225 g of [...] Read more.
This study presents the development and characterization of sustainable bio-bricks incorporating agricultural residues—specifically coffee husks and bovine excreta—as partial substitutes for cement. A mixture design optimized through response surface methodology (RSM) identified the best-performing formulation, namely 960 g of cement, 225 g of lignin (extracted from coffee husks), and 315 g of bovine excreta. Experimental evaluations included compressive and flexural strength, water absorption, density, thermal conductivity, transmittance, admittance, and acoustic transmission loss. The optimal mixture achieved a compressive strength of 1.70 MPa and a flexural strength of 0.56 MPa, meeting Colombian technical standards for non-structural masonry. Its thermal conductivity (~0.19 W/(m×K)) and transmittance (~0.20 W/(m2×K)) suggest good insulation performance. Field tests in three Colombian climate zones confirmed improved thermal comfort compared to traditional clay brick walls, with up to 8 °C internal temperature reduction. Acoustic analysis revealed higher sound attenuation in bio-bricks, especially at low frequencies. Chemical and morphological analyses (SEM-EDS, FTIR, and TGA) confirmed favorable thermal stability and the synergistic interaction of organic and inorganic components. The findings support bio-bricks’ potential as eco-efficient, low-carbon alternatives for sustainable building applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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20 pages, 2051 KiB  
Review
Unfired Bricks from Wastes: A Review of Stabiliser Technologies, Performance Metrics, and Circular Economy Pathways
by Yuxin (Justin) Wang and Hossam Abuel-Naga
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1861; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111861 - 28 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 979
Abstract
Unfired bricks offer a sustainable alternative to traditional fired bricks by enabling the large-scale reuse of industrial, construction, and municipal wastes while significantly reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. This review contributes to eliminating knowledge fragmentation by systematically organising stabiliser technologies, performance [...] Read more.
Unfired bricks offer a sustainable alternative to traditional fired bricks by enabling the large-scale reuse of industrial, construction, and municipal wastes while significantly reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. This review contributes to eliminating knowledge fragmentation by systematically organising stabiliser technologies, performance metrics, and sustainability indicators across a wide variety of unfired brick systems. It thus provides a coherent reference framework to support further development and industrial translation. Emphasis is placed on the role of stabilisers—including cement, lime, geopolymers, and microbial or bio-based stabilisers—in improving mechanical strength, moisture resistance, and durability. Performance data are analysed in relation to compressive strength, water absorption, drying shrinkage, thermal conductivity, and resistance to freeze–thaw and wet–dry cycles. The findings indicate that properly stabilised unfired bricks can achieve compressive strengths above 20 MPa and water absorption rates below 10%, with notable improvements in insulation and acoustic properties. Additionally, life-cycle comparisons reveal up to 90% reductions in CO2 emissions and energy use relative to fired clay bricks. Despite technical and environmental advantages, broader adoption remains limited due to standardisation gaps and market unfamiliarity. The paper concludes by highlighting the importance of hybrid stabiliser systems, targeted certification frameworks, and waste valorisation policies to support the transition toward low-carbon, resource-efficient construction practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling of Waste in Material Science and Building Engineering)
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12 pages, 1469 KiB  
Article
Thermal Optimization of Earth Bricks Using Néré Husk (Parkia biglobosa)
by Magnouréwa Josiane Tossim, Elhadji Dieng, Kpatchaa Lidawou Bafei, Cyprien Coffi Aholou and Yawovi Mawuénya Xolali Dany Ayité
Constr. Mater. 2025, 5(2), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/constrmater5020018 - 28 Mar 2025
Viewed by 476
Abstract
Integrating local, bio-sourced materials, such as earth and agricultural waste like dwarf hulls, is a sustainable solution to the challenges of climate change and increasing urbanization. The use of bio-based materials such as néré husk (Parkia biglobosa) in the manufacture of [...] Read more.
Integrating local, bio-sourced materials, such as earth and agricultural waste like dwarf hulls, is a sustainable solution to the challenges of climate change and increasing urbanization. The use of bio-based materials such as néré husk (Parkia biglobosa) in the manufacture of compressed earth bricks is a sustainable alternative for improving their thermal performance. This study assesses the impact of adding hulls in different forms (fine powder < 0.08 mm, aggregates from 2 mm to 5 mm, and aqueous maceration) on the thermal conductivity and effusivity of bricks. The tests were carried out using the asymmetric hot plane method, applying a constant heat flux and measuring the temperature variation via a thermocouple. Three samples of each formulation were analyzed to ensure the reliability of the results. The results show that the addition of fine powdered husk reduces the thermal conductivity of the bricks to 0.404 W/m.K and their effusivity to 922.2 W/(Km2) s1/2, compared with 0.557 W/m.K and 1000.32 W/(Km2) s1/2 for the control bricks. The addition of coarser aggregates (2 mm–5 mm) gives intermediate values (0.467 W/m.K and 907.99 W/(Km2) s1/2). Aqueous maceration, on the other hand, results in an increase in thermal conductivity to 0.614 W/m.K. These results confirm that the shape and method of incorporation of the husk influence the thermal performance of the bricks, with fine powder offering the best thermal insulation. This approach highlights the potential of bio-based materials for eco-responsible construction. Full article
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28 pages, 4776 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Bio-Brick Composition Using Agricultural Waste: Mechanical Properties and Sustainable Applications
by Haidee Yulady Jaramillo, Oscar Vasco-Echeverri, Rafael López-Barrios and Ricardo Andrés García-León
Sustainability 2025, 17(5), 1914; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17051914 - 24 Feb 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2664
Abstract
The construction industry is a major contributor to environmental pollution, with cement production only accounting for nearly 8% of global CO2 emissions. Sustainable alternatives, such as bio-bricks incorporating agricultural waste, offer a promising solution to reduce emissions. This study investigates the development [...] Read more.
The construction industry is a major contributor to environmental pollution, with cement production only accounting for nearly 8% of global CO2 emissions. Sustainable alternatives, such as bio-bricks incorporating agricultural waste, offer a promising solution to reduce emissions. This study investigates the development and optimization of bio-bricks using lignin as reinforcement in cementitious composites. A mixture design approach was applied to determine optimal proportions of cement, lignin, and bovine excreta, enhancing mechanical properties such as compressive and flexural strength while promoting sustainability. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was used to model the effects of mixture components, revealing that a blend of 959 g of cement, 224 g of lignin, and 314 g of bovine excreta resulted in the best performance. Compressive strength reached ~1.7 MPa, demonstrating the composition viability for eco-friendly construction. The study highlights the bio-brick’s potential to mitigate the environmental impact by reducing reliance on traditional cement while integrating renewable materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Products and Services)
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20 pages, 1991 KiB  
Article
Thermal Insulation of Agricultural Buildings Using Different Biomass Materials
by Kamila Ewelina Mazur, Witold Jan Wardal, Jan Barwicki and Mikhail Tseyko
Energies 2025, 18(3), 636; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030636 - 30 Jan 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1746
Abstract
The main goal of the article is to present the effectiveness of biomass as a thermal insulator and estimate the global potential for using biomass, considering the perspective of sustainable development and improving energy efficiency in agricultural building construction. The article presents two [...] Read more.
The main goal of the article is to present the effectiveness of biomass as a thermal insulator and estimate the global potential for using biomass, considering the perspective of sustainable development and improving energy efficiency in agricultural building construction. The article presents two types of piggery construction: one using typical materials like concrete and the other using biomass-based materials. The evaluation is based on carbon footprint and embodied energy indicators. The model calculations developed in this article may be used in the future for life cycle assessment (LCA) analyses of specific construction solutions for rural livestock buildings. Two model variants for constructing a pigsty with different insulating materials were compared. The TB (Traditional Building) variant consisted of layers of (AAC) Autoclaved Aerated Concrete, glass wool, and brick. The second model variant, HB (Hempcrete Building), was made of concrete blocks with the addition of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) shives. Regarding footprint evaluation, bio-based materials often have a net-negative carbon footprint due to the sequestration effect. The results showed a significant difference in the carbon footprint of both TB and HB solutions—the carbon footprint of the HB variant was only 9.02% of that of the TB variant. The insulation properties of hempcrete were also compared to those of the most frequently used insulating materials in construction, such as glass wool and rock wool. The novelty of the study lies in analyzing the potential use of biomass for thermal insulation in livestock buildings, considering various raw materials, including their industrial properties and the ecological benefits resulting from their implementation. In addition, the authors focused on biomass thermal insulation from the perspective of sustainable development and improving energy efficiency in building construction. Our evaluation and selection of the best solutions are based on the indicators of embodied energy and carbon footprint. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section G: Energy and Buildings)
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16 pages, 2388 KiB  
Article
Efficient Biosynthesis of Ectoine in Recombinant Escherichia coli by Biobrick Method
by Muhammad Naeem, Huiling Yuan, Suya Luo, Simei Zhang, Xinyue Wei, Guangzheng He, Baohua Zhao and Jiansong Ju
Fermentation 2024, 10(9), 450; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation10090450 - 29 Aug 2024
Viewed by 2584
Abstract
Ectoine is a compatible solute naturally produced in some halophilic bacteria as a protective agent for survival in salty environments. It has gained special interest as a therapeutic agent in the pharmaceutical and healthcare sectors for the treatment of different diseases. Ectoine mainly [...] Read more.
Ectoine is a compatible solute naturally produced in some halophilic bacteria as a protective agent for survival in salty environments. It has gained special interest as a therapeutic agent in the pharmaceutical and healthcare sectors for the treatment of different diseases. Ectoine mainly produced by bacterial milking, chemical, and fed-batch fermentation methods under a high-salt medium. Unfortunately, the ectoine yield through these methods is still too low to meet high industrial demand, causing salinity issues. The biobrick method was potentially utilized for efficient ectoine biosynthesis under a low-salt medium with different conditions in E. coli BL21(DE3) harboring the pET-22bNS-EctA-EctB-EctC plasmid. Firstly, three genes, L-2,4-diamino-butyric acid acetyltransferase (ectA), L-2,4-diaminobutyric acid transaminase (ectB), and ectoine synthase (ectC) from Bacillus pseudofirmus OF4, were precisely assembled and expressed into E. coli BL21(DE3). After optimizing the reaction conditions in a whole-cell catalytic reaction [50 mM of the sodium phosphate buffer (pH~7.5) containing 300 mM L-aspartic acid, 100 mM glycerol, 1/20 g/mL cell pellets], the amount of ectoine in the plasmid pET-22bNS-ALacBTacCTac reached the maximum level of 167.2 mg/mL/d (6.97 mg/mL/h). Moreover, Western blot analysis revealed that high expression levels of EctA and EctC had a significant effect on ectoine biosynthesis, indicating that both proteins might be the key enzymes in ectoine production. We conclude that a high amount of ectoine achieved through the biobrick method and efficiently used for different industrial applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Cell Factories for the Production of Functional Compounds)
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20 pages, 1216 KiB  
Review
U-Values for Building Envelopes of Different Materials: A Review
by Jiaqi Yu, Yu Dong, Tsung-Hsien Wang, Wen-Shao Chang and Jihyun Park
Buildings 2024, 14(8), 2434; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082434 - 7 Aug 2024
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4477
Abstract
In recent decades, the issue of building energy usage has become increasingly significant, and U-values for building envelopes have been key parameters in predicting building energy consumption. This study comprehensively reviews the U-values (thermal transmittances) of building envelopes made from conventional and bio-based [...] Read more.
In recent decades, the issue of building energy usage has become increasingly significant, and U-values for building envelopes have been key parameters in predicting building energy consumption. This study comprehensively reviews the U-values (thermal transmittances) of building envelopes made from conventional and bio-based materials. First, it introduces existing studies related to the theoretical and measured U-values for four types of building envelopes: concrete, brick, timber, and straw bale envelopes. Compared with concrete and brick envelopes, timber and straw bale envelopes have lower U-values. The differences between the measured and theoretical U-values of timber and straw bale envelopes are minor. The theoretical U-values of concrete and brick envelopes ranged from 0.12 to 2.09 W/m2K, and the measured U-values of concrete and brick envelopes ranged from 0.14 to 5.45 W/m2K. The theoretical U-values of timber and straw bale envelopes ranged from 0.092 to 1.10 W/m2K, and the measured U-values of timber and straw bale envelopes ranged from 0.04 to 1.30 W/m2K. Second, this paper analyses the environmental factors influencing U-values, including temperature, relative humidity, and solar radiation. Third, the relationship between U-values and building energy consumption is also analysed. Finally, the theoretical and measured U-values of different envelopes are compared. Three research findings in U-values for building envelopes are summarised: (1) the relationship between environmental factors and U-values needs to be studied in detail; (2) the gaps between theoretical and measured U-values are significant, especially for concrete and brick envelopes; (3) the accuracy of both theoretical and the measured U-values needs to be verified. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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17 pages, 5212 KiB  
Article
Effect of Cow Dung Additions on Tropical and Mediterranean Earth Mortars-Mechanical Performance and Water Resistance
by Raphael N. Pachamama, Paulina Faria, Marco A. P. Rezende and António Santos Silva
Materials 2024, 17(12), 2885; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17122885 - 13 Jun 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1510
Abstract
Cow dung (CD) is a material that has been used for millennia by humanity as a stabilizer in earth building techniques in vernacular architecture. However, this stabilization has been little addressed scientifically. In this study, the effect of CD additions was assessed on [...] Read more.
Cow dung (CD) is a material that has been used for millennia by humanity as a stabilizer in earth building techniques in vernacular architecture. However, this stabilization has been little addressed scientifically. In this study, the effect of CD additions was assessed on earth mortars produced with one type of earth from Brazil and two other types from Portugal (from Monsaraz and Caparica). The effect of two volumetric proportions of CD additions were assessed: 10% and 20% of earth + sand. The German standard DIN 18947 was used to perform the physical and mechanical tests, and classify the mortars. In comparison to the reference mortars without CD, the additions reduced linear shrinkage and cracking. An increase in flexural and compressive strengths was not observed only in mortars produced with earth from Monsaraz. In mortars produced with the earth from Caparica, the addition of 10% of CD increased flexural strength by 15% and compressive strength by 34%. For mortars produced with the earth from Brazil, the addition of 10% of CD increased these mechanical strengths by 40%. The increase in adhesive strength and water resistance promoted by the CD additions was observed in mortars produced with all three types of earth. Applied on ceramic brick, the proportion of 10% of CD increased the adherence by 100% for the three types of earth. Applied on adobe, the same proportion of CD also increased it more than 50%. For the water immersion test, the CD additions made possible for the mortar specimens not to disintegrate after a 30 min immersion, with the 20% proportion being more efficient. The effects of the CD on mechanical performance, including adhesion, were more significant on the tropical earth mortars but the effects on water resistance were more significant on the Mediterranean earthen mortars. CD has shown its positive effects and potential for both tropical and Mediterranean earthen plasters and renders tested, justifying being further studied as an eco-efficient bio-stabilizer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mortar Materials in Building Conservation)
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16 pages, 5679 KiB  
Article
Adobe Bricks of the Champagne Region (France): Characterization of a Chalky Raw Earth Construction Material
by Guillaume Polidori, Adrien Aras-Gaudry, Fabien Beaumont, Fabien Bogard, Sébastien Murer, Mohammed Lachi, Chadi Maalouf, Tala Moussa, Christophe Bliard, Gilles Fronteau and Erwan Hamard
Materials 2024, 17(10), 2307; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17102307 - 13 May 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1896
Abstract
Raw earth bricks made from the soil of the Chalky Champagne region (France) have been used for at least two millennia in construction, a promising heritage in the context of reducing the carbon emissions of buildings. The present experimental study aims to measure [...] Read more.
Raw earth bricks made from the soil of the Chalky Champagne region (France) have been used for at least two millennia in construction, a promising heritage in the context of reducing the carbon emissions of buildings. The present experimental study aims to measure the physical, mechanical, thermal, and hydric properties of adobes collected from a local village barn. The results show a high chalk content, estimated at 71%, and a clay content, acting as a binder, of 14%. Despite limited load-bearing capacity, these lightweight adobes are suitable for current single-story constructions, while their hydrothermal properties classify them as excellent moisture regulators for occupants. In association with other bio-sourced materials such as starch–beet pulp bricks, Chalky Champagne adobes yield promising insulating properties, and meet the criteria defined by current energy standards. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Sustainable Construction Materials)
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11 pages, 3379 KiB  
Proceeding Paper
Finite Element Study on Coconut Inflorescence Stem Fiber Composite Panels Subjected to Static Loading
by Muralidhar Nagarajaiah, Arunkumar Yadav, Shanmukha Prasannakumar, Raveesh Ranganathapura Mahadevaiah and Pavan Hiremath
Eng. Proc. 2023, 59(1), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2023059215 - 24 Jan 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1078
Abstract
Natural fiber-reinforced composites (NFCs) are alternatives to synthetic fiber-reinforced composites, since they are abundant in nature, inexpensive, lightweight, and have a high strength-to-weight ratio. Natural fibers encompass a diverse composition, including lignin, hemicellulose, wax, and cellulose. Natural fibers are environmentally friendly, biodegradable, renewable, [...] Read more.
Natural fiber-reinforced composites (NFCs) are alternatives to synthetic fiber-reinforced composites, since they are abundant in nature, inexpensive, lightweight, and have a high strength-to-weight ratio. Natural fibers encompass a diverse composition, including lignin, hemicellulose, wax, and cellulose. Natural fibers are environmentally friendly, biodegradable, renewable, reusable, and sustainable. In bio-composites, natural fibers such as jute, banana, hemp, coir, kenaf, areca nut, and coconut inflorescence stem fibers, are blended with resin. Natural fiber-reinforced bio-composites have various applications in the construction industry, automobile industry, aerospace industry, sports equipment and gadgets, textile industry, and hotel industry. Fibers from natural sources are also used as reinforcements in composites, such as roofing sheets, bricks, door panels, furniture panels, and panels for interior decoration. The mechanical properties of natural fiber-reinforced composites are profoundly influenced by the bonding between the fibers and the matrix. This study involves the testing of compact tension (CT) specimens under mode I fracture conditions and employs three-dimensional finite element analysis (FEA) using ANSYS software to enhance our understanding of the material’s fracture behavior. Finite element analysis was performed on coconut inflorescence stem fiber-reinforced composite (CIFRC) panels with preformed cracks. Numerical simulation was carried out using ANSYS software. Properties such as crack growth initiation, stress-intensity factor, and stresses along the length of a CIFRC panel were examined using finite element analysis (FEA). ASTM D-5045 standards were followed for the specimen size and the ASTM E399 standard was followed for the finite element pre-cracking. The simulation results were found to be in good agreement with the analytical results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Proceedings of Eng. Proc., 2023, RAiSE-2023)
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21 pages, 9392 KiB  
Article
Bio-Inspired Impregnations of Carbon Rovings for Tailored Bond Behavior in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Concrete
by Toni Utech, Tobias Neef, Viktor Mechtcherine and Christina Scheffler
Buildings 2023, 13(12), 3102; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13123102 - 14 Dec 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1803
Abstract
Nature provides various templates for integrating organic and inorganic materials to create high-performance composites. Biological structures such as nacre and the structural elements of the glass sponge are built up in layers, leading to remarkable fracture toughness. In this work, the brick-and-mortar and [...] Read more.
Nature provides various templates for integrating organic and inorganic materials to create high-performance composites. Biological structures such as nacre and the structural elements of the glass sponge are built up in layers, leading to remarkable fracture toughness. In this work, the brick-and-mortar and layer-by-layer structures found in these biological examples have been abstracted and implemented by using an aqueous polymer dispersion in combination with nanoclay particles and sodium water glass. These dispersions were used as impregnation of carbon rovings in order to form bio-inspired contact zones towards the concrete matrix. The bonding behavior was investigated using the Yarn Pull-Out (YPO) test, and a beneficial behavior of the layered polymer–nanoclay dispersions was observed. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was used to determine the organic impregnation content of the roving. Further, light microscopy of the roving cross-sections prior to YPO and visual analyses of the fractured contact zone of split concrete specimens provided information on the quality of the impregnation and the interaction with the concrete matrix. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Performance of Non-metallic Reinforced Concrete)
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32 pages, 6527 KiB  
Article
Biowelding 3D-Printed Biodigital Brick of Seashell-Based Biocomposite by Pleurotus ostreatus Mycelium
by Yomna K. Abdallah and Alberto T. Estévez
Biomimetics 2023, 8(6), 504; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics8060504 - 23 Oct 2023
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7342
Abstract
Mycelium biocomposites are eco-friendly, cheap, easy to produce, and have competitive mechanical properties. However, their integration in the built environment as durable and long-lasting materials is not solved yet. Similarly, biocomposites from recycled food waste such as seashells have been gaining increasing interest [...] Read more.
Mycelium biocomposites are eco-friendly, cheap, easy to produce, and have competitive mechanical properties. However, their integration in the built environment as durable and long-lasting materials is not solved yet. Similarly, biocomposites from recycled food waste such as seashells have been gaining increasing interest recently, thanks to their sustainable impact and richness in calcium carbonate and chitin. The current study tests the mycelium binding effect to bioweld a seashell biocomposite 3D-printed brick. The novelty of this study is the combination of mycelium and a non-agro–based substrate, which is seashells. As well as testing the binding capacity of mycelium in welding the lattice curvilinear form of the V3 linear Brick model (V3-LBM). Thus, the V3-LBM is 3D printed in three separate profiles, each composed of five layers of 1 mm/layer thickness, using seashell biocomposite by paste extrusion and testing it for biowelding with Pleurotus ostreatus mycelium to offer a sustainable, ecofriendly, biomineralized brick. The biowelding process investigated the penetration and binding capacity of the mycelium between every two 3D-printed profiles. A cellulose-based culture medium was used to catalyse the mycelium growth. The mycelium biowelding capacity was investigated by SEM microscopy and EDX chemical analysis of three samples from the side corner (S), middle (M), and lateral (L) zones of the biowelded brick. The results revealed that the best biowelding effect was recorded at the corner and lateral zones of the brick. The SEM images exhibited the penetration and the bridging effect achieved by the dense mycelium. The EDX revealed the high concentrations of carbon, oxygen, and calcium at all the analyzed points on the SEM images from all three samples. An inverted relationship between carbon and oxygen as well as sodium and potassium concentrations were also detected, implying the active metabolic interaction between the fungal hyphae and the seashell-based biocomposite. Finally, the results of the SEM-EDX analysis were applied to design favorable tessellation and staking methods for the V3-LBM from the seashell–mycelium composite to deliver enhanced biowelding effect along the Z axis and the XY axis with <1 mm tessellation and staking tolerance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomimicry and 3D Printing of Living Materials: 2nd Edition)
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20 pages, 9621 KiB  
Article
Fabrication of Thermal Insulation Bricks Using Pleurotus florida Spent Mushroom
by Sally A. Ali, Marwa Kamal Fahmy, Nasser Zouli, Ahmed Abutaleb, Ibrahim M. Maafa, Ayman Yousef and M. M. Ahmed
Materials 2023, 16(14), 4905; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16144905 - 9 Jul 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2631
Abstract
This study explores the potential for making lightweight bricks via the use of dry, pulverized spent mushroom materials (SMM) as a thermal insulator. There are five distinct replacement proportions of SMM that are used, and they range from 0% to 15% of the [...] Read more.
This study explores the potential for making lightweight bricks via the use of dry, pulverized spent mushroom materials (SMM) as a thermal insulator. There are five distinct replacement proportions of SMM that are used, and they range from 0% to 15% of the weight of the clay. The firing of the fabricated bricks at temperatures of 700, 800, and 900 °C led to the development of pores on the interior surface of the bricks as a consequence of the decomposition of SMM. The impact of SMM on the physicomechanical characteristics of fabricated bricks is assessed based on standard codes. Compressive strength, bulk density, and thermal conductivity decreased as the SMM content increased, reaching up to 8.7 MPa, 1420 kg/m3, and 0.29 W/mK at 900 °C and 15% substitution percentage. However, cold water absorption, boiling water absorption, linear drying shrinkage, linear firing shrinkage, and apparent porosity increased with the increase in SMM, reaching 23.6%, 25.3%, and 36.6% at 900 °C and 15% substitution percentage. In the study simulation model, there was a significant improvement in energy consumption, which reached an overall reduction of 29.23% and 21.49% in Cario and Jazan cities, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Materials and Manufacturing Processes)
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