Search Results (36)

In the era of the “super-individual”, companion robots (or sex robots), as novel agents for intimate relationships, have provoked profound ethical controversies. This article responds to Fang Xudong’s defense of companion robots in terms of the “instrumentalization of womanhood” and further explores the possible stance of Confucian ethics towards companion robots. Companion robots risk fostering emotional self-deception, which violates the Confucian self-cultivation requirement of “sincerity within, manifesting outwardly” 诚于中，形于外. They also fail to fulfill the “generative virtue” 生生之德 encompassing biological reproduction and moral education through kinship and may even undermine the family’s function as a carrier of ethical practice. From a Confucian perspective, the “pseudo-intimacy” facilitated by companion robots might alleviate symptoms of social isolation in an atomized age, but it cannot replace the familial warmth characterized by “affection between father and son, distinct roles between husband and wife” 父子有亲，夫妇有别. Only in the ethical practice of facing the other and taking responsibility can one truly realize the ideal of “cultivating oneself and bringing all things to their ideal state” 成己成物. Full article

This study interprets early Confucian discourse on xin through a religious–ethical lens, where “religious ethics” denotes the linkage between moral cultivation and a transcendent or cosmic order. Drawing on transmitted texts and recently excavated manuscripts, this study argues that Mencius and Xunzi developed two contrasting yet equally systematic frameworks of ethical cultivation: one that grounds moral agency in the innate unity of xin and xing (性, human nature), and another that emphasizes the functional role of xin as a conscious mediator between nature and ritual. Through a comparative and religious–philosophical perspective, the paper reveals how the evolving discourse on xin enabled early Confucians to construct morally responsive selves embedded in a spiritualized ethical universe. This approach not only illuminates the diversity of early Confucian thought but also offers conceptual resources for rethinking moral subjectivity in contemporary virtue ethics and religious moral anthropology. Full article

The Confucian hermeneutic approach to the Yijing 易經 (or Book of Changes) delineates a transition from the pursuit of divinatory meaning to the cultivation of virtue and action. As an integral part of the Yijing’s semantic framework, decisive phrases (Duanci 斷辭)—such as those denoting auspiciousness or ominousness—not only reflect historical efforts to ascertain the significance of divinatory cases, but also embody a distinct normative orientation inherent in the text’s teachings. This orientation not only guides human action but also shapes moral character, which in turn provides the foundation for virtuous and effective action. The interpretive paradigm initiated by Confucian exegetes thus offers valuable insights for contemporary theories of ethics and practical philosophy. Full article

The “Jiugao 酒誥” chapter of the Shangshu 尚書 is a proclamation on wine ethics, ordered by the Duke of Zhou for Kangshu to disseminate among the people. It marks the earliest system of laws and regulations concerning wine usage in Chinese history. In this chapter, the Duke of Zhou analyzed drinking from the perspectives of ethical philosophy and political dynamics, closely associating it with ethical codes, moral values, and political order. He criticized King Zhou of Shang for “drunkenness leading to national ruin” and detailed three ethical codes to regulate drinking practices. The Duke of Zhou established the ethical foundation of the Western Zhou Dynasty, incorporating the theory of wine virtue, and constructed its comprehensive political order. This exerted a profoundly lasting impact on Confucius and later Confucian scholars concerning the mandate of heaven and political thought, forming the basis of China’s political and cultural ethos for millennia. Full article

The family is a form of human relationship or organization that has been vital to the Chinese, influencing various aspects of its tradition. At its core lies the parent-child relationship, which emphasizes the virtue of filial piety (xiao 孝) and serves as the beginning of ethical development. Beyond the family, friendship is another form of human relationship that can also contribute to ethical development but is seen only as an extension of the development that begins in the family. This article aims to discuss how friendship, as articulated in Matteo Ricci’s On Friendship (Li Madou 利玛窦, 1552–1610; Jiaoyou Lun 交友论), can deepen or contribute to ethical development that begins in the family and extends into friendship, as understood in the Confucian tradition. The discussion places particular emphasis on the role of love as it emerges in Ricci’s text. The overarching argument of this article is that Ricci’s understanding of love, which is the indispensable element that binds friends together, can contribute to strengthening the ethical development that originates from the family and extends into friendship, as understood in Confucianism. Full article

This paper explores the harmonious integration of Confucian moral values and officially sanctioned love-themed lyrics in music education across Mainland China. It addresses the main research question: What role do officially approved school songs, which embody themes of love related to three key relationships—(1) family and home, (2) teachers and friends, and (3) the Chinese Communist Party (CPC) and the Chinese nation—play in promoting the virtue of love through singing within Mainland China’s music education? By analyzing two sets of officially approved music textbooks for primary school students, consisting of a total of 24 volumes, this study reveals how love-themed lyrics serve as a medium for propagating political ideology while reinforcing traditional Confucian values among the younger generation. The research illustrates how love, as a fundamental virtue, is expressed and reinforced through these songs, highlighting their significance in fostering emotional and ethical development. The findings underscore the role of music education in cultivating a sense of community and national identity, as well as the interconnectedness of personal and collective values in shaping students’ moral frameworks. Full article

This paper challenges the conventional view that pre-Qin Confucianism represents kingly virtue politics that lacks institutional duty. By interpreting Xunzi’s notion of yi 義, particularly gong-yi 公義, as a form of public obligation, I show that Xunzi exposes yi to state institutions to oblige people to serve public ends. While institutional duty is often associated with post-Enlightenment political philosophy, this paper argues that Xunzi’s philosophy offers a comparable framework of public–private exchange. Xunzi’s gong-yi may be a public-servicing sense of duty that combines moral and civic dimensions, compelling individuals to cooperate for the collective good. Unlike social contract theories that trade private rights with public duties, Xunzi’s system relies on moral compulsion and normative reciprocity. This system posits a sensible exchange between individual duties from inner compulsion for the public good. By contrasting gong 公 (the public) with si 私 (the private), Xunzi envisions the public as an entity that is serviced through public duties and a place for human flourishing. Positioning the role of gong-yi in Xunzi’s broader institutional project crystalizes this nascent concept of a “public” and its relationships with civic duties. Full article

In a modern world dominated by individualism, reproduction has become a difficult choice for individuals. The traditional reasons for reproduction have lost their appeal. For individuals, the meaning of reproduction has become a question. Confucian understandings of the universe and the individual provide insight to address the challenge. Dong Zhongshu’s theory of “humans are born of tian” and the concept of deriving benevolence from Heaven deeply appreciate the cosmic virtue of natural generation, establishing a meaningful connection between Heaven and humanity, and offering a cosmic perspective to understand the meaning of human life beyond blood relations. Mencius’s theory of human nature opens up multiple possibilities for the establishment of individual subjectivity, alleviating the potential tension in parent–child relationships from an individualistic perspective. Confucian rituals, through traceable bloodline genealogies, imbue individual life with meaning, and within this context, reproduction is given significance. Full article

This study focuses on Xizi-belief (惜字信仰) and provides a comparative analysis of the religious philosophies of Tianming (天命) and Tianli (天理), using the Hunan region as a case study. Through anthropological methods and fieldwork, this study explores how Classical Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism shape and guide word-cherishing behaviors based on the conceptual philosophies of Tianming and Tianli. The Tianming conception views characters as revelations of heavenly destiny. Through religious rituals, people cherish words to honor heaven and seek to change their destinies through heavenly forces, reflecting worldly desires and spiritual pursuits and emphasizing heaven with personhood. In contrast, the Tianli conception sees words as carriers of moral and natural laws. Guided by Confucian ethics and the concept of karma and retribution, it influences people’s moral norms and behavioral practices, reflecting the metaphysical moral law of a just and righteous heaven. Both conceptions not only involve the worship and protection of words but also profoundly embody a deep understanding and pursuit of the order of the universe, moral norms, the ethics of life, and the meaning of life. This study reveals three modes of influence: the religious philosophy integration model, the ritual practice model, and the architectural embodiment model. These models emphasize the positive impact of Xizi-belief on ethics and social life, prompting people to demonstrate positive guidance in human behavior through reverence for Tianming (mandate of heaven), adherence to Tianli (principle of heaven), and respect for nature. Under the guidance of classical religious ethical principles, the spread of Xizi-belief and the practice of Xizi religious ceremonies promote the harmonious development of individual virtues and social order, achieving harmony between humans and the universe. Full article

Mencius’ “Theory of Embodying Virtue 踐形說” is an important theory that combines moral cultivation and physical practice, emphasizing that virtue is externalized and realized through concrete physical actions. This paper explores the theoretical foundation of the “Theory of Embodying Virtue 踐形說”, examining its internal connections with Mencius’ doctrines of “Innate Goodness”, “Four Beginnings 四端”, and “Nurturing Qi 養氣”. Through self-cultivation, individuals can gradually transform their inner virtues into outward behaviors, ultimately achieving the unity of virtue and the body. This not only serves as an essential path for personal moral cultivation but also embodies the Confucian moral ideal. Additionally, the paper analyzes the contemporary significance of the “Theory of Embodying Virtue” from the perspectives of modern ethics and body philosophy, particularly in terms of its implications for moral education, the improvement of social ethics, and the shaping of leaders’ moral images. By conducting an in-depth discussion, this paper reveals that Mencius’ “Theory of Embodying Virtue” still holds significant theoretical and practical value in contemporary society. Full article

This article explores the specific role of courage in the context of the Anthropocene’s moment; it first examines Aristotle’s conception of virtues, focusing on courage, before comparing it to Confucian thought and analyzing the historical dialogue between Western and Chinese traditions on ethics through the works of François Noël (1651–1729). Aristotle views moral cultivation as a social process wherein habits shape inner dispositions; in his view, courage is linked to other virtues, such as temperance and justice. For Aristotle, courage implies the appropriate balance between extremes and must be directed toward a worthy end, such as promoting positive change within a community. This Aristotelian perspective was later incorporated into a biblical framework by Aquinas and Suarez, emphasizing dichotomies between body and soul, as well as between humans and other living beings. These dichotomies must be challenged in the face of the Anthropocene’s emergencies. The second part of this contribution proceeds to a detour examining Confucian ethics, which rests on a different anthropology, emphasizing continuities rather than discontinuities. Like Aristotelian thought, Confucian thought also underscores moral education within a community; it prioritizes humanity, embodied through empathy and loyalty. In the Analects, courage is balanced by a sense of rituals and righteousness. Mencius further distinguishes several types of courage, stressing self-cultivation and the ruler’s responsibility to make empathetic, appropriate decisions for the community’s sake. From this perspective, courage is understood as the continuous perseverance in self-cultivation, coupled with a firm intention oriented toward the good of the community. Zhu Xi’s comments on Zilu’s courage in the Analects extend this Confucian tradition. Finally, this article highlights how a dialogue between Aristotelian and Confucian ethics began four centuries ago, particularly through Noël’s Philosophia Sinica, which combined these traditions. This inter-religious approach to ethics, enriched by figures such as Aquinas, Suarez, Zhu Xi, and neo-Confucian thinkers, requires re-evaluation because the understanding of personal ethics and nature has evolved. The modern naturalistic approach, with its emphasis on dichotomies, has contributed to a mechanistic view of nature, fostering its exploitation, and a devaluation of the body. This contrast highlights the urgent need for renewed dialogue between Western and Chinese ethical traditions to address contemporary challenges, with François Noël serving as a historical witness of these exchanges. Full article

From the late 17th to the early 18th century, Europe witnessed various intellectual debates, and it undeniably received help from places outside Europe such as China. When Chinese history, culture and thought, especially the Confucian classics translated into Latin, were introduced to Europe, they provided resources for comparison and reference for Europe’s ideological crisis. Confucius ou la Science des Princes, the Confucian classic translated by François Bernier, is a typical example. From the perspective of the cross-cultural history of ideas, after carefully analyzing the terminology used in Bernier’s translation and his understanding of Confucius’s thought, this paper will show that Bernier accepted, through the Jesuit translation, the non-religious dimension of politics and ethics in Confucianism, but unlike the Jesuits, he did not see Confucianism as needing Christianity; on the contrary, he believed that politics and ethics could be based on a purely secular philosophy. Based on his secular understanding of Confucius’s thought, Bernier reconstructed Confucius’s texts as a manual to teach European princes, regarding the prince’s virtue, reason and benevolence as the foundation of a country’s good government. Full article

The role of Kongzi 孔子, in the Zhuangzi, has been a compelling story. Can we read the stories about Kongzi as constituting a type of commentary on his teachings and the early development of Confucian philosophy in general? First, let us consider the way Zhuangzi has put his own teachings into the mouth of Kongzi because he was accepted to be a sage who understood how to live well. Then, I turn to the more problematic references to Kongzi as being punished in Chapter 5 and his being a “condemned person” in chapter 6 to illustrate how these stories are taken to be forms of commentary or criticism of Kongzi’s project because he did not understand complete virtue. The role of Kongzi in the Zhuangzi can be read as a criticism-like commentary using Kongzi to criticize Kongzi. Full article

The thought of rule by virtue in ancient China holds a significant role in Chinese ideological history. Because of the similarity in nature and authority, morality in ancient China played a similar role to religion in Western countries. The Confucian rule by virtue thought in the pre-Qin dynasty profoundly influenced subsequent generations. During the pre-Qin period, Confucian rule by virtue thought evolved—from personal cultivation to statecraft, integrating law and ritual. Concepts of rule by rite, rule by man, and rule by virtue intertwined with the legal philosophies of Confucius, Mencius, and Xunzi. Confucian moral governance focuses on human values and life quality, retaining relevance today. Constrained by historical and social contexts, it had unique dilemma and unobservable limitations. In order to eliminate the ideological dilemma, a return to virtue and law while adhering strictly to their boundaries is a feasible path for the Confucian rule by virtue thought from the pre-Qin Dynasty to the modern era. Full article

The Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu 三元參贊延壽書, compiled by Li Pengfei during the Yuan dynasty, is a comprehensive collection of the essence of earlier health preservation literature. Recently, the Jianwen first-year (1399) re-engraved edition by Liu Yuanran 劉淵然 (1351–1432) has emerged, which is currently housed in the Imperial Household Agency Library in Japan. It has challenged the prevailing consensus in China that the edition (1445) in the Daozang 道藏 is the earliest version. This discovery not only enriches our understanding of the text’s historical dissemination but also highlights the international appreciation and preservation of Chinese traditional medical and health knowledge. Upon meticulous examination, the various editions of this text can be systematically classified into two distinct lineages: Yanshou Canzan 延壽參贊 and Canzan Yanshou 參贊延壽. The latter lineage is notably more comprehensive, with the Wanli 萬曆 edition serving as a prime exemplar of this expanded scope. Li Pengfei primarily drew upon the Yangsheng Leizuan 養生類纂 as the foundational text for his work, skillfully integrating a wealth of Daoism and medical scriptures. He adeptly restructured the content by employing the conceptual framework of three primes (sanyuan 三元), incorporating the health preservation philosophies of Confucianism and Buddhism, thereby transforming it into a more systematic and diverse Daoism scripture dedicated to health preservation. The book eloquently advocates for health-preserving philosophies centered around the principle of not diminishing (busun 不損) primordial pneuma (yuanqi 元氣), extending life through three primes, and prolonging life through the virtue of yin (yinde 陰德). These ideas emphasize a human-centered approach, focusing on preserving the primordial pneuma as the foundation and employing both loss prevention and supplementation as dual pathways. It aims to achieve a state of health preservation where there is unity of man with heaven (tianren heyi 天人合一) and a harmonious balance of yin and yang energies (yinyang qihe 陰陽氣和). Full article