Search Results (12)

Background/Objectives: The high consumption rate of energy drinks among pupils is a serious public health concern in various countries, including South Africa. Excessive consumption of energy drinks that contain elevated caffeine and sugar levels has the potential to lead to the development of addictions, strokes, dehydration, sleeping disorders, mental health and central nervous disorders, hypertension, digestive problems, and anxiety. Most pupils regard energy drinks as regular soft drinks and lack knowledge of the active ingredients contained in energy drinks and their side effects. The objective of this study was to investigate factors influencing energy drink usage amongst pupils in the Mahikeng sub-district, Northwest Province. Methods: A quantitative cross-sectional survey was conducted amongst 505 pupils in the Mahikeng sub-district, Northwest, using self-administered questionnaires. Data were analysed using STATA software version 18 to examine associations between variables. Results: The energy drinks consumed most by pupils were Dragon (38.21%), Switch (28.97%), and Red Bull (14.62%). Factors and reasons influencing energy drink usage among pupils include all-night parties (3.1%), concentration (20.3%), being awake (43.1%), curiosity (2.2%), energy levels (23.1%), exams (13.8%), sports (8.7%), fatigue (6.9%), and health (2.3%). There was a strong association (p ≤ 0.05) between energy drink usage and sports activities amongst pupils. Conclusions: It is concluded that health education and promotion intervention programmes are required to educate pupils about the dangers of energy drink usage to prevent public health risks. Further studies, including research on primary school pupils, are necessary, considering that a substantial number of pupils were exposed to energy drinks at an early age. Full article

Energy drink (ED) consumption has become increasingly popular. Due to a lack of evidence, it was crucial to assess the effects of Red Bull (RB) consumption on the rat submandibular salivary gland and the potential therapeutic impact of blueberry (BB). Thirty rats were randomly assigned to five groups. Group 1 (Control) received distilled water. Group 2 (RB) received RB (10 mL/100 g/day) for 8 weeks. Group 3 (BB) rats were administered BB (500 mg/day for 8 weeks). Group 4 (RB + BB (L)) received RB for 8 weeks, and from the 5th week, were concurrently given BB (250 mg/day) for 4 weeks. Group 5 (RB + BB (H)) received RB for 8 weeks, and from the 5th week, were concurrently given BB (500 mg/day) for 4 weeks. At the end of the experiment, blood samples were collected, the animals were euthanized, and their submandibular salivary glands were harvested. Oxidative stress markers (MDA, GPx, CAT, and SOD) were assessed in both serum and tissue. Inflammatory markers (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-10) were quantified in tissue. Submandibular gland specimens were prepared for light microscopy, and immunohistochemical staining was performed using anti-α-SMA. RB consumption resulted in a significant increase in MDA, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-10, while GPx, CAT, and SOD levels decreased significantly. Degenerative changes in the gland’s structure were observed in the RB group. A significant increase in α-SMA immunoreaction was detected in myoepithelial cells. Administration of BB, particularly at a high dose, ameliorated the aforementioned findings. In conclusion, blueberry administration exhibited therapeutic effects due to its antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. Full article

Objectives: This study was conducted to determine the erosive potential of various commercial energy drinks (EDs), sports drinks (SDs), and sugar sweetened beverages (SSBs) and to correlate quantitative changes in tooth enamel volume loss based on the pH and titratable acidity of the drinks. Methods: A flat plane on the facial surface of 36 human incisor teeth was created and embedded in sample holders using resin. After pre-scanning with a profilometer (Proscan 2000, Scantron, Ind Products Ltd., Taunton, UK), the six samples per group were immersed for 4 h into either Monster Energy™ (ED), Rockstar™ (ED), Red Bull™ (ED), or 5-h Energy™ (ED) and, for comparison with a sports drink, Gatorade™ (SD) and a sugar sweetened beverage, Coca-Cola^® (SSB). After immersion and post-scanning, the quantitative volume loss of the tooth enamel of the 36 samples was calculated (Proscan 3D software V2.1.1.15B), and the pH and titratable acidity (TA) of each drink was determined. Results: All drinks tested caused enamel volume loss. The actual amount varied among the different drinks, from 0.39 mm³ for Red Bull™, up to 1.01 mm³ for Gatorade™. The pH measurements differed for each drink, ranging from 2.6 to 3.7. There was a small reverse correlation of 0.326 between the pH of all drinks and volume loss. Among the energy drinks, titratable acidity was similar and there was only a weak correlation between TA and volume loss (0.319 at p = 0.53). Conclusions: Energy drinks, sugar sweetened beverages, and sport drinks all have the potential to cause enamel tooth surface loss resulting in demineralization. Therefore, the pH of a drink cannot be the sole determinant for choosing a less harmful commercial beverage. Full article

In recent years, the consumption of energy drinks by young adults and athletes has risen significantly, but concerns have been raised about the potential health risks associated with excessive consumption. These concerns include cardiovascular problems, nervous system disorders, and the potential for addiction. This review aims to examine the reported effects of acute or chronic abuse of energy drinks on human health. The analysis shows a significant prevalence of adverse effects, particularly on the cardiovascular and neurovegetative systems. In particular, the analysis identified nine cases of cardiac arrest, three of which were fatal. The aetiology of these adverse effects is attributed to the inherent neurostimulant properties of these beverages, of which caffeine is the predominant component. A comparison of documented effects in humans with experimental studies in animal models showed an overlap in results. This review highlights the need for greater rigour in the assessment of sudden cardiac death, particularly in young people, as legal substances such as energy drinks may be involved. We propose stricter limits on the consumption of these beverages than for caffeine, based on the evidence found and the data in the literature. This review also calls for the establishment of regulations governing the consumption of these products in view of their potential impact on human health. Full article

Hundreds of billions of aluminium-based cans are manufactured and used every year worldwide including those containing soft drinks. This study investigates and evaluates the performance and quality of two well-known energy and soft drinks brands, Green Cola and Red Bull. Recent health hazards and concerns have been associated with aluminium leakage and bisphenol A (BPA) dissociation from the can’s internal protective coating. The cans were examined under four conditions, including coated and uncoated samples, the soft drink’s main solution, and 0.1 M acetic acid solution. Electrochemical measurements such as potentiodynamic polarization and impedance spectroscopy (EIS), element analyses using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) were performed. In addition, sample characterization by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction spectroscopy (XRD) were employed to comprehensively study and analyze the effect of corrosion on the samples. Even though the internal coating provided superior corrosion protection concerning main or acetic acid solutions, it failed to prevent aluminium from dissolving in the electrolyte. Green Cola’s primary solution appears to be extremely corrosive, as the corrosion rate increased by approximately 333% relative to the acetic acid solution. Uncoated samples resulted in increases in the percentage of oxygen, the appearance of more corrosion spots, and decreases in crystallinity. The ICP-OES test detected dangerous levels of aluminium in the Green Cola solution, which increased significantly after increasing the conductivity of the solution. Full article

Brackets are metallic dental devices that are very often associated with acidic soft drinks such as cola and energy drinks. Acid erosion may affect the bonding between brackets and the enamel surface. The purpose of this study was to investigate the characteristics of brackets’ adhesion, in the presence of two different commercially available drinks. Sixty human teeth were divided into six groups and bonded with either resin-modified glass ionomer (RMGIC) or resin composite (CR). A shared bond test (SBS) was evaluated by comparing two control groups with four other categories, in which teeth were immersed in either Coca-Cola^TM or Red Bull^TM energy drink. The debonding between the bracket and enamel was evaluated by SEM. The morphological aspect correlated with SBS results showed the best results for the samples exposed to artificial saliva. The best adhesion resistance to the acid erosion environment was observed in the group of teeth immersed in Red Bull^TM and with brackets bonded with RMGIC. The debonded structures were also exposed to Coca-Cola^TM and Red Bull^TM to assess, by atomic force microscopy investigation (AFM), the erosive effect on the enamel surface after debonding and after polishing restoration. The results showed a significant increase in surface roughness due to acid erosion. Polishing restoration of the enamel surface significantly reduced the surface roughness that resulted after debonding, and inhibited acid erosion. The roughness values obtained from polished samples after exposure to Coca-Cola^TM and Red Bull^TM were significantly lower in that case than for the debonded structures. Statistical results evaluating roughness showed that Red Bull^TM has a more erosive effect than Coca-Cola™. This result is supported by the large contact surface that resulted after debonding. In conclusion, the prolonged exposure of the brackets to acidic drinks affected the bonding strength due to erosion propagation into both the enamel–adhesive interface and the bonding layer. The best resistance to acid erosion was obtained by RMGIC. Full article

The objectives of this study were to investigate the pH of common beverages and to evaluate the effects of common acidic beverages on the surface hardness and weight loss of human tooth specimens. A total of 106 beverages were conveniently purchased from supermarkets in Karachi, Pakistan. Prior to evaluation, beverages were refrigerated or stored at room temperature in accordance with the manufacturers’ recommendations. Beverages were categorized into six groups: ‘Sports and Energy drinks’, ‘Water’, ‘Fruit Juices and Drinks’, ‘Sodas’, ‘Milk and Flavored Milk’ and ‘Teas and Coffee’. Using a pH meter, the pH of each beverage was measured in triplicate at room temperature. In addition, the influence of five highly acidic beverages on the weight loss and surface hardness of human tooth specimens was evaluated using gravimetric analysis and the Vickers hardness tester, respectively. ‘Sports and Energy drinks’, ‘Fruits Juices and Drinks’ and ‘Sodas’ were the most acidic beverage categories, with a pH range of 3.00–5.00. A total of 33% of beverages tested in this study were highly acidic (pH less than 4.00), 29% of beverages were moderately acidic (pH 4.00–4.99) and 31% were mildly acidic (pH 5.00–6.99). Significant weight loss was observed in all immersed specimens compared to control counterparts (p < 0.05). Similarly, for surface hardness, five highly acidic beverages (Red Bull, Pepsi, Apple Cidra, Tang Mosambi and Tang Orange) significantly decreased the surface hardness of specimens (p < 0.05). The pH levels of commonly available beverages in Pakistan are highly acidic, which may encourage loss of minerals from teeth; hence, affecting their surface hardness. Full article

Energy drinks are very popular nonalcoholic beverages among adolescents and young adults for their stimulant effects. Our study aimed to investigate the effect of repeated intraoral Red Bull (RB) infusion on dopamine transmission in the nucleus accumbens shell and core and in the medial prefrontal cortex and on cardiac contractility in adult rats exposed to chronic RB consumption. Rats were subjected to 4 weeks of RB voluntary consumption from adolescence to adulthood. Monitoring of in vivo dopamine was carried out by brain microdialysis. In vitro cardiac contractility was studied on biomechanical properties of isolated left-ventricular papillary muscle. The main finding of the study was that, in treated animals, RB increased shell dopamine via a nonadaptive mechanism, a pattern similar to that of drugs of abuse. No changes in isometric and isotonic mechanical parameters were associated with chronic RB consumption. However, a prolonged time to peak tension and half-time of relaxation and a slower peak rate of tension fall were observed in RB-treated rats. It is likely that RB treatment affects left-ventricular papillary muscle contraction. The neurochemical results here obtained can explain the addictive properties of RB, while the cardiovascular investigation findings suggest a hidden papillary contractility impairment. Full article

Taurine is one of the main ingredients used in energy drinks which are highly consumed in adolescents for their sugary taste and stimulating effect. With energy drinks becoming a worldwide phenomenon, the biological effects of these beverages must be evaluated in order to fully comprehend the potential impact of these products on the health due to the fact nutrition is closely related to science since the population consumes food to prevent certain diseases. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the biological effects of taurine, glucose, classic Red Bull^® and sugar-free Red Bull^® in order to check the food safety and the nutraceutical potential of these compounds, characterising different endpoints: (i) Toxicology, antitoxicology, genotoxicology and life expectancy assays were performed in the Drosophila melanogaster model organism; (ii) The in vitro chemopreventive activity of testing compounds was determined by assessing their cytotoxicity, the proapoptotic DNA-damage capability to induce internucleosomal fragmentation, the strand breaks activity and the modulator role on the methylation status of genomic repetitive sequences of HL-60 promyelocytic cells. Whereas none tested compounds showed toxic or genotoxic effect, all tested compounds exerted antitoxic and antigenotoxic activity in Drosophila. Glucose, classic Red Bull^® and sugar-free Red Bull^® were cytotoxic in HL-60 cell line. Classic Red Bull^® induced DNA internucleosomal fragmentation although none of them exhibited DNA damage on human leukaemia cells. In conclusion, the tested compounds are safe on Drosophila melanogaster and classic Red Bull^® could overall possess nutraceutical potential in the in vivo and in vitro model used in this study. Besides, taurine could holistically be one of the bioactive compounds responsible for the biological activity of classic Red Bull^®. Full article

Red Bull energy drink is popular among athletes, students and drivers for stimulating effects or enhancing physical performance. In previous work, Red Bull has been shown to exert manifold cardiovascular effects at rest and during exercise. Red Bull with caffeine as the main ingredient increases blood pressure in resting individuals, probably due to an increased release of (nor)-epinephrine. Red Bull has been shown to alter heart rate or leaving it unchanged. Little is known about possible effects of caffeinated energy drinks on pulmonary ventilation/perfusion distribution at sea level or at altitude. Here, we hypothesized a possible alteration of pulmonary blood flow in ambient air and in hypoxia after Red Bull consumption. We subjected eight anesthetized piglets in normoxia (FiO₂ = 0.21) and in hypoxia (FiO₂ = 0.13), respectively, to 10 mL/kg Red Bull ingestion. Another eight animals served as controls receiving an equivalent amount of saline. In addition to cardiovascular data, ventilation/perfusion distribution of the lung was assessed by using the multiple inert gas elimination technique (MIGET). Heart rate increased in normoxic conditions but was not different from controls in acute short-term hypoxia after oral Red Bull ingestion in piglets. For the first time, we demonstrate an increased fraction of pulmonary shunt with unchanged distribution of pulmonary blood flow after Red Bull administration in acute short-term hypoxia. In summary, these findings do not oppose moderate consumption of caffeinated energy drinks even at altitude at rest and during exercise. Full article

The current study examined the relationships between the effects of consuming a caffeine-containing “energy drink” upon (i) short-term maximal performance, (ii) reaction times, and (iii) psychological factors (i.e., mood state, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), and affective load) and on physiological parameters (i.e., blood pressure and blood glucose). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, counterbalanced crossover design was implemented in this study. Nineteen male physical-education students (age: 21.2 ± 1.2 years; height: 1.76 ± 0.08 m; body-mass: 76.6 ± 12.6 kg) performed two test sessions: after drinking the “Red Bull’ beverage (RB) and after drinking a placebo (PL). One hour after ingestion of each drink, resting blood glucose and blood pressure were measured and the participants completed the Profile of Mood States questionnaire. Then, after a 5-min warm-up, simple visual reaction time and handgrip force were measured, and the 30-s Wingate test was performed. Immediately after these tests, the RPE, blood glucose, and blood pressure were measured, and the affective load was calculated. Differences between treatments were assessed using two-way repeated measures analyses of variance and paired t-tests, as appropriate. Relationships between the test variables were assessed using Bland–Altman correlations. Significant (i) improvements in peak and mean power output, handgrip force, pre- and post-exercise blood glucose, blood pressure, and vigor and (ii) reductions in reaction times, depression, confusion, fatigue, anger, anxiety, RPE, and affective load scores were observed after RB compared to PL. There were significant correlations of (i) physical performances and reaction times with (ii) RPE, affective load, and pre- and post-exercise blood glucose levels. Gains in peak and mean power were significantly correlated with reductions in fatigue, anxiety (peak power only), and anger (mean power only). The reduction of reaction times was significantly correlated with decreases in confusion and anger and with increases in vigor. Handgrip force and reaction times were significantly correlated with pre- and post-exercise blood pressures. We conclude that RB ingestion has a positive effect on physical performance and reaction times. This effect is related to ergogenic responses in both psychological (i.e., RPE, affective load, and mood state) and physiological (i.e., blood glucose and blood pressure) domains. Full article

An emerging trend in sports nutrition is the consumption of energy drinks and “energy shots”. Energy shots may prove to be a viable pre-competition supplement for runners. Six male runners (mean ± SD age and VO₂max: 22.5 ± 1.8 years and 69.1 ± 5.7 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) completed three trials [placebo (PLA; 0 mg caffeine), Guayakí Yerba Maté Organic Energy Shot™ (YM; 140 mg caffeine), or Red Bull Energy Shot™ (RB; 80 mg caffeine)]. Treatments were ingested following a randomized, placebo-controlled crossover design. Participants ran a five kilometer time trial on a treadmill. No differences (p > 0.05) in performance were detected with RB (17.55 ± 1.01 min) or YM ingestion (17.86 ± 1.59 min) compared to placebo (17.44 ± 1.25 min). Overall, energy shot ingestion did not improve time-trial running performance in trained runners. Full article