Sign in to use this feature.

Years

Between: -

Subjects

remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline

Journals

remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline

Article Types

Countries / Regions

remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline

Search Results (32,388)

Search Parameters:
Keywords = immune RESPONSE

Order results
Result details
Results per page
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
17 pages, 1659 KB  
Review
Beyond the Cup: Coffee Extracts as Modulators of Periodontal Inflammation and Bone Remodeling
by Janvi Mody, Deamah Aleisa, Harshal Modh, Purnima Sainani, Serge Dibart and Weiyuan Ma
Curr. Issues Mol. Biol. 2025, 47(10), 827; https://doi.org/10.3390/cimb47100827 - 8 Oct 2025
Abstract
Alveolar bone loss is a defining feature of periodontitis and a principal cause of tooth loss worldwide. Driven by a dysregulated host immune response to chronic bacterial infection, periodontitis initiates a cascade of inflammatory events that lead to an imbalance in bone remodeling, [...] Read more.
Alveolar bone loss is a defining feature of periodontitis and a principal cause of tooth loss worldwide. Driven by a dysregulated host immune response to chronic bacterial infection, periodontitis initiates a cascade of inflammatory events that lead to an imbalance in bone remodeling, favoring osteoclastic activity. While conventional periodontal therapies aim to control infection and inflammation, they often fall short in preserving bone integrity. As a result, interest has grown in adjunctive strategies targeting molecular pathways involved in bone metabolism. Among potential candidates, coffee, a globally consumed beverage often perceived as detrimental to health, has gained attention for its complex array of bioactive compounds, including caffeine, chlorogenic acids, and polyphenols. These compounds have demonstrated anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and osteo-modulatory effects in various biological contexts. Despite coffee’s reputation as a potential health risk, its complex composition presents a paradox, necessitating an investigation into how its bioactive constituents may mitigate periodontal tissue destruction. The novelty of this short review lies in its integration of in vitro, animal, and epidemiologic evidence to delineate the dose- and context-dependent effects of coffee polyphenols, particularly chlorogenic and ferulic acids, on periodontal inflammation and alveolar bone remodeling, with special emphasis on osteoclast-related mechanisms that have not been synthesized previously. Caffeine can influence osteoblast and osteoclast activity in a dose-dependent manner, while chlorogenic acids (CGA) and polyphenols exert radical-scavenging and cytokine-suppressing activity that may reduce inflammatory bone loss. However, their efficacy is influenced by coffee species, cultivation, roasting, and extraction methods. This review evaluates current evidence and proposes directions for optimizing coffee-based formulations to support alveolar bone preservation in periodontitis. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 1116 KB  
Review
Optimizing Anti-PD1 Immunotherapy: An Overview of Pharmacokinetics, Biomarkers, and Therapeutic Drug Monitoring
by Joaquim Faria Monteiro, Alexandrina Fernandes, Diogo Gavina Tato, Elias Moreira, Ricardo Ribeiro, Henrique Reguengo, Jorge Gonçalves and Paula Fresco
Cancers 2025, 17(19), 3262; https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers17193262 - 8 Oct 2025
Abstract
Anti-PD-1 therapies have transformed cancer treatment by restoring antitumor T cell activity. Despite their broad clinical use, variability in treatment response and immune-related adverse events underscore the need for therapeutic optimization. This article provides an integrative overview of the pharmacokinetics (PKs) of anti-PD-1 [...] Read more.
Anti-PD-1 therapies have transformed cancer treatment by restoring antitumor T cell activity. Despite their broad clinical use, variability in treatment response and immune-related adverse events underscore the need for therapeutic optimization. This article provides an integrative overview of the pharmacokinetics (PKs) of anti-PD-1 antibodies—such as nivolumab, pembrolizumab, and cemiplimab—and examines pharmacokinetic–pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) relationships, highlighting the impact of clearance variability on drug exposure, efficacy, and safety. Baseline clearance and its reduction during therapy, together with interindividual variability, emerge as important dynamic biomarkers with potential applicability across different cancer types for guiding individualized dosing strategies. The review also discusses established biomarkers for anti-PD-1 therapies, including tumor PD-L1 expression and immune cell signatures, and their relevance for patient stratification. The evidence supports a shift from traditional weight-based dosing toward adaptive dosing and therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM), especially in long-term responders and cost-containment contexts. Notably, the inclusion of clearance-based biomarkers—such as baseline clearance and its reduction—into therapeutic models represents a key step toward individualized, dynamic immunotherapy. In conclusion, optimizing anti-PD-1 therapy through PK-PD insights and biomarker integration holds promise for improving outcomes and reducing toxicity. Future research should focus on validating PK-based approaches and developing robust algorithms (machine learning models incorporating clearance, tumor burden, and other validated biomarkers) for tailored cancer treatment. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

36 pages, 4341 KB  
Review
Physiological Barriers to Nucleic Acid Therapeutics and Engineering Strategies for Lipid Nanoparticle Design, Optimization, and Clinical Translation
by Yerim Kim, Jisu Park, Jaewon Choi, Minse Kim, Gyeongsu Seo, Jeongeun Kim, Jeong-Ann Park, Kwang Suk Lim, Suk-Jin Ha and Hyun-Ouk Kim
Pharmaceutics 2025, 17(10), 1309; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics17101309 - 8 Oct 2025
Abstract
Lipid nanoparticles are a clinically validated platform for delivering nucleic acids, but performance is constrained by multiscale physiological barriers spanning circulation, vascular interfaces, extracellular matrices, cellular uptake, and intracellular trafficking. This review links composition–structure–function relationships for ionizable lipids, helper phospholipids, cholesterol, and PEG-lipids [...] Read more.
Lipid nanoparticles are a clinically validated platform for delivering nucleic acids, but performance is constrained by multiscale physiological barriers spanning circulation, vascular interfaces, extracellular matrices, cellular uptake, and intracellular trafficking. This review links composition–structure–function relationships for ionizable lipids, helper phospholipids, cholesterol, and PEG-lipids to systemic fate, endothelial access, endosomal escape, cytoplasmic stability, and nuclear transport. We outline strategies for tissue and cell targeting, including hepatocyte ligands, immune and tumor selectivity, and selective organ targeting through compositional tuning, together with approaches that modulate escape using pH-responsive chemistries or fusion-active peptides and polymers. We further examine immunomodulatory co-formulation, route and schedule effects on biodistribution and immune programming, and manufacturing and stability levers from microfluidic mixing to lyophilization. Across these themes, we weigh trade-offs between stealth and engagement, potency and tolerability, and potency and manufacturability, noting that only a small fraction of endosomes supports productive release and that protein corona variability and repeat dosing can reshape tropism and clearance. Convergence of standardized assays for true cytosolic delivery, biomarker-guided patient selection, and robust process controls will be required to extend LNP therapeutics beyond the liver while sustaining safety, access, and scale. Full article
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

27 pages, 3153 KB  
Review
Evolutionary Insight into Fatal Human Coronaviruses (hCoVs) with a Focus on Circulating SARS-CoV-2 Variants Under Monitoring (VUMs)
by Mohammad Asrar Izhari, Fahad Alghamdi, Essa Ajmi Alodeani, Ahmad A. Salem, Ahamad H. A. Almontasheri, Daifallah M. M. Dardari, Mansour A. A. Hadadi, Ahmed R. A. Gosady, Wael A. Alghamdi, Bakheet A. Alzahrani and Bandar M. A. Alzahrani
Biomedicines 2025, 13(10), 2450; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines13102450 - 8 Oct 2025
Abstract
The breach of an interspecies barrier by RNA viruses has facilitated the emergence of lethal hCoVs, particularly SARS-CoV-2, resulting in significant socioeconomic setbacks and public health risks globally in recent years. Moreover, the high evolutionary plasticity of hCoVs has led to the continuous [...] Read more.
The breach of an interspecies barrier by RNA viruses has facilitated the emergence of lethal hCoVs, particularly SARS-CoV-2, resulting in significant socioeconomic setbacks and public health risks globally in recent years. Moreover, the high evolutionary plasticity of hCoVs has led to the continuous emergence of diverse variants, complicating clinical management and public health responses. Studying the evolutionary trajectory of hCoVs, which provides a molecular roadmap for understanding viruses’ adaptation, tissue tropism, spread, virulence, and immune evasion, is crucial for addressing the challenges of zoonotic spillover of viruses. Tracing the evolutionary trajectory of lethal hCoVs provides essential genomic insights required for risk stratification, variant/sub-variant classification, preparedness for outbreaks and pandemics, and the identification of critical viral elements for vaccine and therapeutic development. Therefore, this review examines the evolutionary landscape of the three known lethal hCoVs, presenting a focused narrative on SARS-CoV-2 variants under monitoring (VUMs) as of May 2025. Using advanced bioinformatics approaches and data visualization, the review highlights key spike protein substitutions, particularly within the receptor-binding domain (RBD), which drive transmissibility, immune escape, and potential resistance to therapeutics. The article highlights the importance of real-time genomic surveillance and intervention strategies in mitigating emerging variant/sub-variant risks within the ongoing COVID-19 landscape. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1694 KB  
Article
Dietary Inclusion of Micro-Algal Astaxanthin on Gut Health of Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss: Insights from Gut Morphology, Physiological Indices and Microbiota Diversity
by Min Zhang, Xiaowen Long, Yaopeng Li, Yong Zhang, Weihong Sun and Xugan Wu
Fishes 2025, 10(10), 505; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10100505 - 8 Oct 2025
Abstract
The green alga Haematococcus pluvialis, rich in natural astaxanthin, is a key feed additive for salmonid pigmentation. This study evaluated dietary micro-algal astaxanthin effects on structure, antioxidative and immune response, as well as microbiota in different gut segments of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus [...] Read more.
The green alga Haematococcus pluvialis, rich in natural astaxanthin, is a key feed additive for salmonid pigmentation. This study evaluated dietary micro-algal astaxanthin effects on structure, antioxidative and immune response, as well as microbiota in different gut segments of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (initial average weight: 0.67 ± 0.02 kg). Three diets contained 0 (Diet 1, control), 18.57 (Diet 2) and 31.25 mg/kg (Diet 3) micro-algal astaxanthin. After a 4-month feeding trial, dietary astaxanthin promoted the goblet cell proliferation of pyloric caeca and increased hindgut tunica muscularis thickness (p < 0.05). It also improved antioxidant capacity, characterized by the upregulation of gpx and cat expression in the midgut, accompanied by a significant decrease in MDA content (p < 0.05). Furthermore, dietary astaxanthin could upregulate tgf-β, tor1 and pcna levels in midgut and igm in hindgut, while il1β, il6, il8 and tnfα in hindgut were significantly downregulated in Diet 2 (p < 0.05). Additionally, dietary astaxanthin also enhanced the α-diversity of hindgut and altered the core microbiota (reduced Proteobacteria, increased Actinobacteria). Diet 2 increased microbic abundance associated with reducing gut inflammation and promoting nutrient absorption while decreasing that of pathogenic bacteria. Overall, dietary 18.57 mg/kg astaxanthin supplementation could promote gut structure, antioxidant and immune capacity, reduce inflammation and modulate microbiota. These findings indicate that natural astaxanthin from H. pluvialis has potential as an immunostimulant to promote gut health in salmonids. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Nutrition and Feeding)
Show Figures

Figure 1

41 pages, 2919 KB  
Review
Organoids as Next-Generation Models for Tumor Heterogeneity, Personalized Therapy, and Cancer Research: Advancements, Applications, and Future Directions
by Ayush Madan, Ramandeep Saini, Nainci Dhiman, Shu-Hui Juan and Mantosh Kumar Satapathy
Organoids 2025, 4(4), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/organoids4040023 - 8 Oct 2025
Abstract
Organoid technology has emerged as a revolutionary tool in cancer research, offering physiologically accurate, three-dimensional models that preserve the histoarchitecture, genetic stability, and phenotypic complexity of primary tumors. These self-organizing structures, derived from adult stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, or patient tumor [...] Read more.
Organoid technology has emerged as a revolutionary tool in cancer research, offering physiologically accurate, three-dimensional models that preserve the histoarchitecture, genetic stability, and phenotypic complexity of primary tumors. These self-organizing structures, derived from adult stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, or patient tumor biopsies, recapitulate critical aspects of tumor heterogeneity, clonal evolution, and microenvironmental interactions. Organoids serve as powerful systems for modeling tumor progression, assessing drug sensitivity and resistance, and guiding precision oncology strategies. Recent innovations have extended organoid capabilities beyond static culture systems. Integration with microfluidic organoid-on-chip platforms, high-throughput CRISPR-based functional genomics, and AI-driven phenotypic analytics has enhanced mechanistic insight and translational relevance. Co-culture systems incorporating immune, stromal, and endothelial components now permit dynamic modeling of tumor–host interactions, immunotherapeutic responses, and metastatic behavior. Comparative analyses with conventional platforms, 2D monolayers, spheroids, and patient-derived xenografts emphasize the superior fidelity and clinical potential of organoids. Despite these advances, several challenges remain, such as protocol variability, incomplete recapitulation of systemic physiology, and limitations in scalability, standardization, and regulatory alignment. Addressing these gaps with unified workflows, synthetic matrices, vascularized and innervated co-cultures, and GMP-compliant manufacturing will be crucial for clinical integration. Proactive engagement with regulatory frameworks and ethical guidelines will be pivotal to ensuring safe, responsible, and equitable clinical translation. With the convergence of bioengineering, multi-omics, and computational modeling, organoids are poised to become indispensable tools in next-generation oncology, driving mechanistic discovery, predictive diagnostics, and personalized therapy optimization. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

32 pages, 1122 KB  
Review
Bispecific Monoclonal Antibodies in Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma: Dawn of a New Era in Targeted Therapy
by Mattia Schipani, Matteo Bellia, Carola Sella, Riccardo Dondolin, Mariangela Greco, Abdurraouf Mokhtar Mahmoud, Clara Deambrogi, Riccardo Moia, Gianluca Gaidano and Riccardo Bruna
Cancers 2025, 17(19), 3258; https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers17193258 - 8 Oct 2025
Abstract
Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) worldwide. Currently, approximately sixty percent of patients are cured with R-CHOP as frontline treatment, while the remaining patients experience primary refractory or relapsed (R/R) disease. Recently, the introduction of Pola-R-CHP [...] Read more.
Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) worldwide. Currently, approximately sixty percent of patients are cured with R-CHOP as frontline treatment, while the remaining patients experience primary refractory or relapsed (R/R) disease. Recently, the introduction of Pola-R-CHP as front-line therapy has represented a major advance in the management of DLBCL, resulting in improved outcomes. Prognosis of R/R DLBCL patients is poor, particularly for those eligible neither for chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy nor autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT), representing a significant unmet clinical need. The advent of bispecific monoclonal antibodies (BsAbs), such as bispecific T-cell engagers (BiTEs), dual affinity retargeting (DART) molecules and IgG-like bispecific antibodies, offers a novel promising therapeutic approach in the treatment of DLBCL, both as frontline treatment and in the R/R setting. BsAbs simultaneously engage two different antigens, a tumor-associated antigen and an immune cell antigen, redirecting T-cells against malignant cells and enhancing the immune response. Most BsAbs developed for the treatment of NHLs engage T-cells via CD3 and malignant B-cells via CD20, a surface antigen expressed on most lymphomatous cells. Engagement of malignant B-cells by BsAbs activates T-cells, leading to the release of multiple cytokines and potentially to two characteristic adverse events: cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and immune effector cell-associated neurotoxicity syndrome (ICANS). The most extensively studied BsAbs, in both the frontline and relapsed/refractory (R/R) settings, include epcoritamab, glofitamab, mosunetuzumab, and odronextamab. Epcoritamab and glofitamab have received FDA and EMA approval for R/R DLBCL after two or more systemic line of therapies. EMA has also approved glofitamab in combination with gemcitabine and oxaliplatin (GemOx) for patients with R/R DLBCL ineligible for ASCT, whereas this indication has not been approved by FDA. Odronextamab is approved by EMA for R/R DLBCL and FL in patients who have received at least two prior lines of therapy, but it has not been approved by FDA. Mosunetuzumab is approved by both agencies—but only for R/R follicular lymphoma (FL). BsAbs represent a breakthrough therapy in the treatment of DLBCL, especially in R/R diseases. The purpose of this article is to review the landscape of BsAbs in DLBCL. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monoclonal Antibodies in Lymphoma)
Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 1794 KB  
Review
Deciphering the Role of Macrophages in RSV Infection and Disease
by Sara Van Looy, Axelle Fransen, Lotte Jacobs, Sofie Schaerlaekens, Martina Ceconi, Francisco I. Serrano-Cano, Noor Ul Hudda, Laurence Van Moll, Marie De Smedt, Paul Cos and Peter L. Delputte
Viruses 2025, 17(10), 1351; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17101351 - 8 Oct 2025
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of severe respiratory infections in infants, the elderly, and immunocompromised persons. Innate immune responses to RSV, which are crucial for containment of the infection yet may also be linked to severe disease, are well-studied in [...] Read more.
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of severe respiratory infections in infants, the elderly, and immunocompromised persons. Innate immune responses to RSV, which are crucial for containment of the infection yet may also be linked to severe disease, are well-studied in the main RSV target cells, respiratory epithelial cells, but the role of pulmonary macrophages (MΦs), key innate immune regulators, remains incompletely defined. This review addresses the interaction of RSV with MΦ, discussing the susceptibility of these cells to productive infection, and MΦ responses to RSV, including cytokine and chemokine release and inflammasome activation. Furthermore, factors contributing to variability in MΦ infectivity and responses, such as MΦ polarization, age, differences in RSV isolates, co-infections, and prior innate priming, are presented. Finally, the review highlights discrepancies observed across experimental models, MΦ origins, and RSV isolates used, complicating the interpretation of MΦ-RSV interactions, thereby underscoring the need for standardized methodologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Viral Immunology, Vaccines, and Antivirals)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

24 pages, 1386 KB  
Review
Virosomes: Beyond Vaccines
by Hadeel K. Salameh, Mohammed M. Safi and Rafik Karaman
Life 2025, 15(10), 1567; https://doi.org/10.3390/life15101567 - 8 Oct 2025
Abstract
Background: One of the primary strategies for preventing and reducing infectious diseases is vaccination. There are numerous licensed vaccinations of various kinds that can prevent viral infection by triggering the immune system’s reaction to specific antigens beforehand. To elicit a stronger immune response, [...] Read more.
Background: One of the primary strategies for preventing and reducing infectious diseases is vaccination. There are numerous licensed vaccinations of various kinds that can prevent viral infection by triggering the immune system’s reaction to specific antigens beforehand. To elicit a stronger immune response, however, two elements of the immune system—humoral and cellular immunity—should be addressed. Since they target proteins that are difficult to alter, recent innovative techniques for vaccine delivery systems—such as liposomes, nanogels, microemulsions, etc.—have shown excellent immunogenicity qualities. Methods: PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar were used as the databases for literature search, and keywords such as “Virosomes”, “Hemagglutinin”, and “IRIV” were selected to ensure relevant articles were included. Results: This article examines a cutting-edge method called virosomes, which are an effective way to deliver pharmaceutically active ingredients that target a variety of illnesses and ailments, as well as vaccines. This resulted from the fact that virosomes possess numerous structural characteristics that might trigger sophisticated immune reactions by utilizing the inactivated virus’s envelope or by imitating it through recombinant methods. Conclusions: Here, we will walk you through the history of virosome development, explore various manufacturing techniques, provide an overview of the latest patents, and conclude with the potential for more virosomal revolutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Pharmaceutical Science)
Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 739 KB  
Article
SARS-COV-2 Vaccination Response in Non-Domestic Species Housed at the Toronto Zoo
by Sara Pagliarani, Jaime Tuling, Phuc H. Pham, Alexander Leacy, Pauline Delnatte, Brandon N. Lillie, Nicholas Masters, Jamie Sookhoo, Shawn Babiuk, Sarah K. Wootton and Leonardo Susta
Vaccines 2025, 13(10), 1037; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13101037 - 8 Oct 2025
Abstract
Background: Due to the wide host range of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), vaccination has been recommended for susceptible species in zoological collections, particularly to protect endangered species. The Zoetis® Experimental Mink Coronavirus Vaccine (Subunit) was temporarily authorized [...] Read more.
Background: Due to the wide host range of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), vaccination has been recommended for susceptible species in zoological collections, particularly to protect endangered species. The Zoetis® Experimental Mink Coronavirus Vaccine (Subunit) was temporarily authorized in 2021–2024 for emergency use in North America for this purpose. However, there are limited data regarding its safety or efficacy in non-domestic mammals. The present study was conducted to assess the ability of this vaccine to elicit serum neutralizing titers against SARS-CoV-2 in selected animals from the Toronto Zoo (TZ) vaccinated during 2022. Methods: Serum samples were collected from 24 individuals across four families (Cervidae, Felidae, Ursidae, and Hyaenidae) and tested using a surrogate virus neutralization test (sVNT) and a plaque-reduction neutralization test (PRNT). Results: The results showed that all species developed some neutralizing titers after at least one vaccine dose, except for polar bears, which showed no seroconversion. Felids and hyenas had the highest neutralizing titers, which peaked at 3 and declined between 4 and 6 months after boost. These differences may stem from species-specific immune responses or lack of vaccination protocols tailored to individual species. Conclusions: While natural infection with SARS-CoV-2 could not be ruled out in the cohort of this study, insights from our results have the potential to inform future vaccine recommendations for non-domestic species. Furthermore, our study highlighted the value of competitive assays in assessing serological responses across a broad range of exotic species, for which reagents, such as anti-isotype antibodies, are often unavailable. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection COVID-19 Vaccine Development and Vaccination)
Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 1432 KB  
Review
Polarized Macrophages and Their Exosomes: Implications for Autoimmune and Immune-Mediated Diseases
by Vincent G. Yuan
Biology 2025, 14(10), 1371; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology14101371 - 8 Oct 2025
Abstract
Autoimmune diseases result from dysregulated immune responses that mistakenly attack the body’s own tissues, causing chronic inflammation and progressive damage. Macrophages, with their remarkable plasticity, play key roles in both promoting and resolving inflammation, with pro-inflammatory M1 and anti-inflammatory M2 states shaping disease [...] Read more.
Autoimmune diseases result from dysregulated immune responses that mistakenly attack the body’s own tissues, causing chronic inflammation and progressive damage. Macrophages, with their remarkable plasticity, play key roles in both promoting and resolving inflammation, with pro-inflammatory M1 and anti-inflammatory M2 states shaping disease outcomes. Macrophage-derived exosomes have emerged as important mediators of intercellular communication, reflecting the functional state of their parent cells while influencing recipient cell behavior. Exosomes from M1 macrophages amplify inflammation through cytokines and microRNAs, whereas M2-derived exosomes support tissue repair and immune regulation. Studies in rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, inflammatory bowel disease, type 1 diabetes, and psoriasis highlight their dual roles in pathology and resolution. In addition, macrophage exosomes can be engineered to deliver targeted therapeutic molecules, offering cell-free interventions with advantages in specificity, biocompatibility, and immunomodulation. This review summarizes current insights into macrophage-derived exosomes, their role in autoimmune pathogenesis, and emerging strategies to harness their therapeutic potential, highlighting their promise as precision-guided treatments for autoimmune diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathophysiology of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases)
Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 2565 KB  
Review
Inflammatory and Immune Biomarkers in Mood Disorders: From Mechanistic Pathways to Clinical Translation
by Mario Pinzi, Andrea Fagiolini, Despoina Koukouna, Giacomo Gualtieri, Maria Beatrice Rescalli, Caterina Pierini, Simone Pardossi, Benjamin Patrizio and Alessandro Cuomo
Cells 2025, 14(19), 1558; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells14191558 - 8 Oct 2025
Abstract
Over the past two decades, immune–inflammatory dysregulation has emerged as a central paradigm in the biology of mood disorders. Patients with major depression (MDD) and bipolar disorder (BD) frequently display low-grade systemic inflammation. Elevated C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α [...] Read more.
Over the past two decades, immune–inflammatory dysregulation has emerged as a central paradigm in the biology of mood disorders. Patients with major depression (MDD) and bipolar disorder (BD) frequently display low-grade systemic inflammation. Elevated C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) identify clinically relevant subgroups of patients characterized by greater severity, cognitive impairment, and poor treatment response. Changes in the gut microbiota and disruptions of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) act as important gateways through which systemic immune activity can influence the brain. At the intracellular level, pattern-recognition receptors activate convergent hubs including NF-κB, JAK/STAT, and MAPK cascades, while the NLRP3 inflammasome integrates mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress with IL-1β release and pyroptosis. These pathways converge on glial dysregulation, impaired BDNF/TrkB signaling, and kynurenine pathway (KP) alterations, fostering excitotoxicity and synaptic deficits. Translational studies demonstrate that elevated CRP and IL-6 predict poor antidepressant outcomes. Anti-inflammatory agents such as infliximab and celecoxib show efficacy in specific subgroups of patients. Emerging multi-omics approaches identify immuno-metabolic biotypes, supporting the rationale for biomarker-guided stratification. These findings define an ‘inflammatory biotype’ of mood disorders and highlight the need for biomarkers and precision-based trials to guide treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroinflammation in Brain Health and Diseases)
Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 667 KB  
Review
Role of NLRP3 Inflammasomes in Disorders of Children’s Digestive Systems: A Narrative Review
by Safaa ELMeneza
Pediatr. Rep. 2025, 17(5), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/pediatric17050103 - 7 Oct 2025
Abstract
Background/Objectives: This review article highlights the role of the nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat, pyrin domain-containing 3 protein (NLRP3) inflammasomes in various gastrointestinal and hepatic disorders in the pediatric age group. NLRP3 inflammasomes are one of the principal intracellular innate immune sensors. During inflammation, [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: This review article highlights the role of the nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat, pyrin domain-containing 3 protein (NLRP3) inflammasomes in various gastrointestinal and hepatic disorders in the pediatric age group. NLRP3 inflammasomes are one of the principal intracellular innate immune sensors. During inflammation, molecules such as caspase-1 and the release of IL-1β and IL-18 are produced. The NLRP3 inflammasome participates in the preservation of intestinal homeostasis and mucosal immune response. The objective is to evaluate the published articles related to the role of NLRP3 inflammasomes in common pediatric gastrointestinal and hepatic disorders in order to identify the future perspective regarding their possible therapeutic values. Methods: We searched Medline for NLRP3 inflammasomes and disorders of the digestive system during childhood. Results: Although the majority of articles were related to various disorders of adults, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, atherosclerosis, as well as neurodevelopmental disorders, such as schizophrenia, a few published datasets were related to the roles of NLRP3 in the pediatric age group: they addressed autism, rheumatoid arthritis, and other autoimmune diseases, as well as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and hepatic infection. Some research demonstrated that the NLRP3 inflammasome has a protective role; however, it also has a pathogenic function. Conclusions: This review focused on the comprehensive role of inflammasome NLRP3 in the most common pediatric and neonatal gastrointestinal and hepatic diseases, including clinical and experimental studies, as well as the pharmacological inhibitors for NLRP3 inflammasomes, which may provide future therapy for GIT problems, such as IBD. Full article
23 pages, 2074 KB  
Review
Crosstalk Between Allergic Inflammation and Autophagy
by Jaewhoon Jeoung, Wonho Kim and Dooil Jeoung
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(19), 9765; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26199765 - 7 Oct 2025
Abstract
Autophagy is a conserved process that involves the degradation of damaged proteins and organelles to restore cellular homeostasis. Autophagy plays a critical role in cell differentiation, immune responses, and protection against pathogens, as well as the development and progression of allergic inflammation. Crosstalk [...] Read more.
Autophagy is a conserved process that involves the degradation of damaged proteins and organelles to restore cellular homeostasis. Autophagy plays a critical role in cell differentiation, immune responses, and protection against pathogens, as well as the development and progression of allergic inflammation. Crosstalk between autophagy and signaling pathways modulates immune responses to inflammatory signals. Here, we discuss the regulatory roles of autophagy in allergic inflammation. Autophagy can promote allergic inflammation by enhancing the secretion of inflammatory mediators. Impaired autophagy resulting from the accumulation of autophagosomes can exacerbate allergic inflammation. Mast cell degranulation and activation require energy provided by mitochondrial respiration. Mast cell activation is accompanied by morphological changes and mitochondrial fragmentation. Mitochondrial fragmentation (mitophagy) induced by oxidative stress involves the degradation of defective mitochondria. Therefore, we discuss the relationship between mitophagy and allergic inflammation. Targeting autophagy and oxidative stress can be a strategy for developing anti-allergy therapeutics. In this review, we also discuss future research directions to better understand allergic diseases with respect to autophagy and develop effective anti-allergy drugs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Molecular Biology)
17 pages, 2477 KB  
Article
Atherosclerotic Plaque Crystals Induce Endothelial Dysfunction
by Jishamol Thazhathveettil, Sherin Aloysius Gomez, Deborah Olaoseeji, Rongrong Wu, Allan Sirsjö and Geena Varghese Paramel
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(19), 9758; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26199758 - 7 Oct 2025
Abstract
Endothelial dysfunction is an early driver of atherosclerosis, yet the direct impact of endogenous crystals such as cholesterol crystals and monosodium urate on endothelial activation remains incompletely understood. In this study, we examine how crystalline stimuli modulate human umbilical vein endothelial cells by [...] Read more.
Endothelial dysfunction is an early driver of atherosclerosis, yet the direct impact of endogenous crystals such as cholesterol crystals and monosodium urate on endothelial activation remains incompletely understood. In this study, we examine how crystalline stimuli modulate human umbilical vein endothelial cells by assessing inflammatory signaling, mitochondrial respiration, and neutrophil recruitment. Using dose- and time-controlled experiments, we show that CC and MSU are internalized by endothelial cells, activating NF-κB and STAT3 signaling pathways and inducing a robust pro-inflammatory cytokine profile. Notably, CC caused marked mitochondrial dysfunction, evidenced by impaired respiratory capacity and loss of membrane potential, revealing a novel bioenergetic vulnerability in endothelial cells. Both direct crystal stimulation and exposure to crystal-primed conditioned media triggered endothelial adhesion molecule expression and promoted neutrophil adhesion, indicating that soluble mediators released upon crystal stimulation can propagate vascular inflammation. These findings demonstrate that crystalline stimuli are potent vascular danger signals capable of driving endothelial inflammation, mitochondrial impairment, and immune cell engagement, which are hallmarks of early atherogenesis. By elucidating these multifaceted endothelial responses, this study provides important mechanistic insights into how crystal-induced signals may contribute to vascular dysfunction and the early stages of atherogenesis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Endothelial Dysfunction and Cardiovascular Diseases)
Back to TopTop