Physiologia

Research

18 pages, 1365 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Maximal Torque, Neuromuscular, and Potentiated Twitch Responses to Sustained Forearm Flexion Tasks Using Different Anchor Schemes

by Robert W. Smith, Jocelyn E. Arnett, Dolores G. Ortega, Trevor D. Roberts, Dona J. McCanlies, Richard J. Schmidt, Glen O. Johnson and Terry J. Housh

Physiologia 2025, 5(2), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5020015 - 23 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Studies of the effects of anchor schemes (perceived intensity vs. relative intensity) on muscular performance have reported mixed findings. Therefore, the present study examined the effects of different anchor schemes on time-to-task failure (TTF), muscular performance, neuromuscular responses, and potentiated twitch torque [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Studies of the effects of anchor schemes (perceived intensity vs. relative intensity) on muscular performance have reported mixed findings. Therefore, the present study examined the effects of different anchor schemes on time-to-task failure (TTF), muscular performance, neuromuscular responses, and potentiated twitch torque (PTT). Methods: On separate days, 15 men (age = 21.5 ± 2.3 yrs) performed forearm flexion maximal voluntary isometric contractions (MVICs) before and after sustained tasks anchored to a rating of perceived exertion of 6 (RPEFT) and with the torque at RPE = 6 (TRQFT). Electromyographic amplitude (EMG AMP) and mean power frequency (EMG MPF) were recorded from the biceps brachii (BB). Supramaximal stimuli were delivered to the motor nerve of the BB following the MVICs to quantify the PTT. Repeated measures ANOVAs assessed the mean differences between anchor schemes for MVIC, neuromuscular, and PTT responses. Paired t-tests compared the magnitude of percent changes for the dependent variables. Results: The TTF for the RPEFT was longer (p < 0.001) than the TRQFT, but the MVIC decreased similarly (12.7 ± 9.5% vs. 20.3 ± 7.9%, p = 0.054). Electromyographic AMP did not change (p = 0.288), while EMG MPF decreased (15.7 ± 10.2%, p < 0.011) for the TRQFT only. Mean decreases in PTT were comparable for both tasks (p < 0.003), although the percent change was greater for the TRQFT (49.6 ± 16.1%, p < 0.001). Conclusions: The differences in TTF, but similar decreases in MVIC suggested that participants reached a sensory tolerance limit. Based on EMG MPF and PTT, the TRQFT caused greater peripheral perturbations to contractile function than the RPEFT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 592 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Defining Running Intensity Domains from Critical Speed Derived from a 3-Minute All-Out Running Test

by Ming-Chang Tsai, Leanna S. Lee and Scott Thomas

Physiologia 2025, 5(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5010006 - 13 Jan 2025

Viewed by 823

Abstract

Background/Objectives: This study examines the utility of the 3-min all-out test (3MT) in determining exercise intensity domains through critical speed (CS), offering a practical alternative to traditional

V O_{2 m a x}

-based methods. Methods: Eighteen trained runners completed both the 3MT [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: This study examines the utility of the 3-min all-out test (3MT) in determining exercise intensity domains through critical speed (CS), offering a practical alternative to traditional

V O_{2 m a x}

-based methods. Methods: Eighteen trained runners completed both the 3MT and a graded treadmill test. CS,

V O_{2 m a x}

, and

H R_{m a x}

were measured and compared to markers such as ventilation threshold (VT), gas exchange threshold (GET), lactate threshold (LT), onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA), CS, and

V O_{2 m a x}

, which are threshold markers for defining six exercise intensity domains. Results: Results demonstrate that CS reliably distinguishes among six exercise intensity domains with greater precision and less variability than heart rate (HR) or

V O_{2}

-derived metrics. Notably, HR was unable to differentiate between high-intensity domains, highlighting its limitations for performance prescription. Compared to

V O_{2 m a x}

testing, the 3MT offers a simpler, non-invasive, and time-efficient approach to identifying training zones and monitoring performance. CS effectively delineated moderate-to-heavy, heavy-to-severe, and severe-to-extreme intensity domains, with strong correlations to performance thresholds. The findings emphasize the accessibility and reliability of the 3MT, particularly in overcoming the logistical challenges of traditional testing methods. Conclusions: This research underscores the potential of the running 3MT as a valuable tool for individualized training prescription and performance monitoring in both research and applied sports contexts, paving the way for a broader adoption in athletic training methodologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 1054 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Combined Plyometric and Sprint Training on Sprint Performance in Youth Soccer Players

by Marc Niering, Jennifer Heckmann, Johanna Seifert, Elisa Ueding, Linus von Elling, Antonia Bruns and Rainer Beurskens

Physiologia 2025, 5(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5010005 - 9 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1771

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Plyometrics is a widely used method to enhance the physical performance of athletes. Studies have demonstrated that the effectiveness of plyometrics increases when combined with other training methods. This study aims to determine whether the direct combination of plyometric and sprint [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Plyometrics is a widely used method to enhance the physical performance of athletes. Studies have demonstrated that the effectiveness of plyometrics increases when combined with other training methods. This study aims to determine whether the direct combination of plyometric and sprint training improves linear sprint speed and change-of-direction speed in youth soccer players. Methods: Twenty-eight male youth soccer players were randomly assigned to an intervention group (INT, n = 14, 12.9 ± 0.4 years) and a control group (CON, n = 14, 12.9 ± 0.7 years). The INT group performed two sessions per week, each including nine drop jumps, followed by a hurdle jump and one sprint. The CON group only performed nine sprints without any jumps. Both groups continued their regular soccer training over the 20-week intervention period. Pre- and post-intervention tests included 5 m, 10 m, and 30 m linear sprints and a modified agility t-test for change-of-direction speed. Results: Largest improvements were observed in the INT group (5 m = 6.7%, 10 m = 4.8%, 30 m = 2.7%, change-of-direction speed = 3.6%, 3.1%). A significant difference between the groups was noted for the 10 m sprint distance (p = 0.02). Furthermore, moderate to large correlations between linear sprint speed and change-of-direction speed were found in both groups (r = 0.33–0.82). Conclusions: Results suggest that the direct combination of plyometric training and sprint training over a 20-week period can improve both linear sprint speed and change-of-direction speed in youth soccer players, thus enhancing physical performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 1001 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring Brain Haemodynamic Activity and Afferent Visual Function: A Preliminary Study on the Relationship Between fNIRS, the King–Devick Test and Suspected Sport-Related Concussions

by Mark Hecimovich, Terence Moriarty, Doug King, Tricia Majewski-Schrage and Kate Hermsen

Physiologia 2025, 5(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5010004 - 7 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1036

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) may help quantify changes in brain haemodynamics during sport-related concussions (SRCs). This study compared post-match prefrontal cortex (PFC) brain haemodynamics measured by fNIRS during the King–-Devick test (K-DT) with players suspected of having sustained an SRC. It [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) may help quantify changes in brain haemodynamics during sport-related concussions (SRCs). This study compared post-match prefrontal cortex (PFC) brain haemodynamics measured by fNIRS during the King–-Devick test (K-DT) with players suspected of having sustained an SRC. It was hypothesized that changes in the K-DT would correspond with brain haemodynamic processes. Methods: Twenty-two male and female collegiate rugby players (six males and twenty-two females; age range: 18–22) completed a baseline K-DT+fNIRS assessment. Over the course of two to three matches, all participants were invited to complete at least one post-match K-DT+fNIRS assessment. If a player was suspected of having sustained an SRC, they were re-assessed with the K-DT+fNIRS. If a participant who was not suspected of having sustained an SRC performed worse on the K-DT post-match, they were included in the participant category of ‘concussion’ for the analysis. A repeated measures ANOVA was performed. Test–retest reliability was calculated using the intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC). A Pearson correlation coefficient (r) assessed the linear relationship between the changes in the K-DT and the measurements of the left and right PFC. Results: Differences were identified in the K-DT for the players with a suspected concussive injury post-match (χ2(1) =5.0; p = 0.0253; z = −2.0; p = 0.0431; d = 0.16). There were also significant differences between the baseline and post-match results for all concussed players in the right PFC (t(8) = 250; p = 0.0371; d = 0.92) and for the concussed females in the right PFC (t(6) = 2.78; p = 0.0319; d = 0.52). There were no correlations between the K-DT and PFC values in the suspected concussed group. Conclusions: The SRC group had decreased cognitive performance and a notable change in PFC activation, while the non-concussed group showed an increase in the activation in the PFC and no change in cognitive performance scores. This represents a possible acute adjustment in brain haemodynamics and provides insight into how SRCs can negatively impact cognitive performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 744 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Running Efficiency and Muscle Activation Are Unaffected by Knee Taping Techniques During Acute Treadmill Running

by Andrew R. Moore, Amador J. Landaverde and Andrew Craig-Jones

Physiologia 2025, 5(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5010001 - 2 Jan 2025

Viewed by 744

Abstract

Background/Objectives: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of various muscle taping applications on running efficiency. Methods: Recreational runners (N = 14; 7 women; age = 22.80 ± 4.61 years; BMI = 25.08 ± 3.97 kg/m²) completed four [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of various muscle taping applications on running efficiency. Methods: Recreational runners (N = 14; 7 women; age = 22.80 ± 4.61 years; BMI = 25.08 ± 3.97 kg/m²) completed four bouts of treadmill running at a preferred speed. Each bout used a different taping technique, as follows: control (no tape), athletic tape, Kinesio tape, and a novel spring-type technique of Kinesio tape. Oxygen consumption, muscle activation of the rectus femoris and biceps femoris, and stride frequency were observed during each bout to assess running efficiency. The data for these variables were analyzed with repeated-measures ANOVAs (α = 0.05). Results: There were no differences among any of the four conditions for oxygen consumption (p = 0.232, η² = 0.103), muscle activation of the rectus femoris (p = 0.173, η² = 0.118) or biceps femoris (p = 0.085, η² = 0.184), or stride frequency (p = 0.230, η² = 0.107). Conclusions: None of the three taping methods tested in this study had a significant impact on oxygen consumption, agonist muscle activation, or stride frequency during short running bouts at a preferred speed compared to a control condition. There appeared to be no ergogenic benefit to the use of these taping techniques during this manner of activity. Runners opting to use a taping method to enhance joint stability at the knee during preferred-intensity running activity may do so without any substantial impact on their running efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 270 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Plyometric and Resistance Training: A Dual Approach to Enhance Physical Fitness in 12–15-Year-Old Girls

by Tanja Petrušič

Physiologia 2024, 4(4), 373-386; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia4040023 - 31 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1776

Abstract

Background/Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of an 8-week combined plyometric and resistance training program on the physical fitness (PF) of adolescent girls aged 12 to 15 years. The objective was to determine whether combined training (CT) would yield greater improvements [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of an 8-week combined plyometric and resistance training program on the physical fitness (PF) of adolescent girls aged 12 to 15 years. The objective was to determine whether combined training (CT) would yield greater improvements in performance measures compared to resistance training (RT) alone. Methods: Forty-seven adolescent girls were randomly assigned to either the CT group or the RT group. Performance measures such as the 20 m sprint, squat jump, vertical jump, handgrip strength, and flexibility (sit and reach test) were assessed before and after the 8-week intervention. Changes in these measures were analyzed to compare the effects of the two training approaches. Results: The CT group showed a significant reduction in sprint time (−6.5%) compared to the RT group (−4.1%), although the difference was not statistically significant. Squat jump height improved significantly by 5.6% in the CT group compared to 1.1% in the RT group (p < 0.05). Similarly, vertical jump height increased by 6.7% in the CT group and by 2.4% in the RT group (p < 0.05). Handgrip strength improved by 7.5% in the CT group and 4.6% in the RT group, with no significant differences between the groups. Flexibility showed slight, non-significant improvements in both groups. Conclusions: The findings suggest that a combined plyometric and RT program is more effective in enhancing explosive power, specifically squat and vertical jump performance, in adolescent girls compared to RT alone. These results highlight the potential of CT programs for improving overall physical performance in this population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

10 pages, 519 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Post-Exercise Warm Water Immersion on Anaerobic Power Performance in College Students

by Chloe E. Newlands, Michele Aquino, Kevin Z. Young, Soniya T. Gupta, John Petrizzo, John W. Wygand and Robert M. Otto

Physiologia 2024, 4(4), 363-372; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia4040022 - 29 Oct 2024

Viewed by 973

Abstract

Background/Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a short-term passive post-exercise heat acclimation (HA) protocol on anaerobic performance in college students. Methods: In total, 28 participants (age 22.3 ± 2.1 years, height 168 ± 9.1 cm, mass 71.5 [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a short-term passive post-exercise heat acclimation (HA) protocol on anaerobic performance in college students. Methods: In total, 28 participants (age 22.3 ± 2.1 years, height 168 ± 9.1 cm, mass 71.5 ± 16.6 kg) volunteered and were randomly divided into either an intervention (INT) or control (CON) group. Both groups followed a consecutive two-day protocol, consisting of a 25 min submaximal cycle @ 50–60% heart rate reserve (HRR), followed by a 25 min hot water immersion (INT) or nothing (CON). All participants performed a 30 s Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) on four separate occasions—familiarization, pre-intervention, acutely post-intervention, and 24 h post intervention. The WAnT measured their peak power (W), relative peak power (W/kg), mean power (W), fatigue index (%), and total work (kJ). Results: From the results of the Factorial ANOVA, it was found that there were no significant differences, with no main effect for group (INT vs. CON) or time (Trials 1–4) and no significant interaction across all measured variables (p > 0.05). Conclusions: A two-day post-exercise passive HA protocol utilizing hot water immersion had no significant effect on the measurement of anaerobic performance in college students. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 1521 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological Key Determinants of Elite Open-Water Swimmers

by Robin Pla, Yannis Raineteau, Xavier Barbier and Anaël Aubry

Physiologia 2024, 4(3), 305-316; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia4030018 - 11 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1883

Abstract

This study describes the relationships between different physiological measurements and combinations of critical velocity and performance in elite open-water swimmers. A total of 15 international male open-water swimmers performed a 5 × 200 m front crawl incremental test to estimate maximal aerobic speed [...] Read more.

This study describes the relationships between different physiological measurements and combinations of critical velocity and performance in elite open-water swimmers. A total of 15 international male open-water swimmers performed a 5 × 200 m front crawl incremental test to estimate maximal aerobic speed (MAS), maximal oxygen consumption (VO2_max), the first lactate threshold (VLT1), the second lactate threshold (VLT2), the speed corresponding to 2 mmol/L (V_2mmol/L) and to 4 mmol/L (V_4mmol/L), and the lactate threshold (V_Dmax). A 10 km pool trial was also performed to assess swimming performance. Official competition performances in 200, 400, 800, and 1500 m events were collected and were also used to calculate critical velocity (CV) with various combinations of distances. Personal best performances in 1500 m events were 941.76 ± 20.28 s. For the 10 km trial, performance was strongly correlated to V_LT1 and moderately to V_2mmol/L (r = 0.73 and 0.67, respectively). For the 400, 800, and 1500 m events, strong correlations were observed for V_2mmol/L and V_4mmol/L. Moderate correlations with these events were also observed for V_LT1 and for V_Dmax (400 and 800 m only). For long-distance swimmers, assessment with a fixed blood lactate value seems to be a good option to estimate swimming performance in distance events. In addition, 10 km performance seems to be more related to the aerobic threshold than the anaerobic threshold. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 1411 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Blood Flow Characteristics in Young Healthy Males between High-Intensity Interval and Moderate-Intensity Continuous Exercise

by Brett R. Baughman and Brandon J. Sawyer

Physiologia 2024, 4(3), 253-265; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia4030015 - 18 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1309

Abstract

Researchers have hypothesized that high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) and moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MOD) lead to different patterns of shear stress in the brachial artery. These differing patterns of shear stress are thought to partially explain the differing chronic adaptations to these two types [...] Read more.

Researchers have hypothesized that high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) and moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MOD) lead to different patterns of shear stress in the brachial artery. These differing patterns of shear stress are thought to partially explain the differing chronic adaptations to these two types of exercise. No study has directly compared blood flow characteristics during HIIE and MOD. Sixteen healthy males (Age: 23 ± 3 years) completed two randomly assigned exercise visits: HIIE (10 × 1 min intervals at 90–95% of HR_max with 1 min of recovery between) or MOD (30 min at 70% of HR_max) on an electronically braked cycle ergometer. Brachial artery blood flow velocity and diameter were measured for a total of 12 min during each of the exercise sessions. Both anterograde blood flow (MOD: 191.3 ± 80.3 mL/min, HIIE: 153.9 ± 67.5 mL/min, p = 0.03) and shear rate (MOD: 203.5 ± 78.1 s⁻¹, HIIE: 170.8 ± 55.5 s⁻¹, p = 0.04) were higher during MOD compared to HIIE. Both retrograde blood flow (MOD: −48.7 ± 21.3 mL/min, HIIE: −63.9 ± 23.3 cm/s, p < 0.01) and shear rate (MOD: −51.5 ± 19.8 s⁻¹, HIIE: −73.8 ± 28.4 s⁻¹, p < 0.01) were of greater magnitude during HIIE compared to MOD. During exercise, brachial artery diameter (p = 0.34) did not differ between HIIE and MOD. Continuous moderate cycling exercise leads to higher brachial artery anterograde shear rate and blood flow, but lower retrograde shear rate and blood flow when compared to high-intensity interval exercise. These differences during exercise in blood flow characteristics could shed light on the differing chronic adaptations to these two types of exercise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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10 pages, 1131 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Citrulline Malate Fails to Improve Repeated 300 m Swimming Times in Highly Trained Swimmers

by Josh W. Newbury, Matthew Cole, Stephen J. Bailey, Adam L. Kelly and Lewis A. Gough

Physiologia 2024, 4(2), 243-252; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia4020014 - 13 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1427

Abstract

Citrulline malate (CM) has been touted as a nutritional ergogenic aid for sports performance, with purported mechanisms of increased muscle blood flow, ammonia clearance, and adenosine triphosphate resynthesis. Combined, these physiological benefits may be best applied to whole-body endurance exercises, such as swimming, [...] Read more.

Citrulline malate (CM) has been touted as a nutritional ergogenic aid for sports performance, with purported mechanisms of increased muscle blood flow, ammonia clearance, and adenosine triphosphate resynthesis. Combined, these physiological benefits may be best applied to whole-body endurance exercises, such as swimming, though this postulate has not yet been explored. In a double-blind, randomised, and crossover design, 11 national-level swimmers (age: 17 ± 3 years, height: 1.71 ± 0.05 m, body mass: 60.6 ± 8.3 kg) from a high-performance swimming club ingested either 15 g CM or a placebo (PLA) 60 min before six × 300 m freestyle bouts (at 4.5 min intervals). Blood lactate, blood pressure, and ratings of perceived exertion were measured at baseline, 60 min post-ingestion, and immediately post-exercise. Neither mean 300 m swimming time (CM: 212.0 ± 9.6 vs. PLA: 212.8 ± 7.7 s, p = 0.683, g = 0.09) nor any individual swimming bouts (p = 0.679, Pŋ² = 0.02) were improved with CM ingestion. Moreover, no differences in any physiological or subjective measures were identified between conditions (all p > 0.05). Whether the proposed CM mechanisms were active was unclear as more direct physiological measures (i.e., plasma NO, ammonia) may have been required. Resultantly, these observations do not support an ergogenic effect of acute CM ingestion in highly trained swimmers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

41 pages, 1192 KiB

Open AccessReview

Exercise-Induced Neuroplasticity: Adaptive Mechanisms and Preventive Potential in Neurodegenerative Disorders

by Masab Mansoor, Andrew Ibrahim, Ali Hamide, Tyler Tran, Ethan Candreva and Jad Baltaji

Physiologia 2025, 5(2), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5020013 - 2 Apr 2025

Viewed by 463

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Neurodegenerative diseases represent a growing global health challenge with limited therapeutic options. Physical exercise has emerged as a promising non-pharmacological intervention with potential neuroprotective effects. This narrative review examines the mechanisms through which exercise induces neuroplasticity and their implications for neurodegenerative [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Neurodegenerative diseases represent a growing global health challenge with limited therapeutic options. Physical exercise has emerged as a promising non-pharmacological intervention with potential neuroprotective effects. This narrative review examines the mechanisms through which exercise induces neuroplasticity and their implications for neurodegenerative disease prevention. Methods: We synthesized evidence from molecular, animal, and human studies on exercise-induced neuroplasticity and neurodegenerative disease prevention through a comprehensive literature review. Results: Exercise enhances neuroplasticity through multiple pathways: (1) neurotrophic signaling (BDNF, IGF-1, VEGF), (2) neuroendocrine regulation, (3) epigenetic modifications, and (4) metabolic pathway optimization. These molecular changes support structural adaptations including hippocampal neurogenesis, enhanced synaptic plasticity, improved cerebrovascular function, and optimized brain network connectivity. Exercise directly impacts pathological features of neurodegenerative diseases by reducing protein aggregation, attenuating excitotoxicity and oxidative stress, and enhancing mitochondrial function. Clinical evidence consistently demonstrates associations between physical activity and reduced neurodegenerative risk, with intervention studies supporting causal benefits on cognitive function and brain structure. Conclusions: Exercise represents a multi-target intervention addressing several pathological mechanisms simultaneously across various neurodegenerative conditions. Its accessibility, minimal side effects, and multiple health benefits position it as a promising preventive strategy. Future research should focus on understanding individual response variability, developing sensitive biomarkers, and creating personalized exercise prescriptions for optimal neuroprotection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 267 KiB

Open AccessReview

Efficacy and Clinical Application of Physical Activity in Substance Use Disorder Rehabilitation: A Review on Mechanism and Benefits

by Gaia Calcini, Vittorio Bolcato, Livio Pietro Tronconi and Giuseppe Basile

Physiologia 2025, 5(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5010007 - 12 Feb 2025

Viewed by 857

Abstract

Background: Substance Use Disorders (SUDs) are chronic conditions characterized by high relapse rates and significant psychological, physical, and social complications. Despite the availability of traditional pharmacological and psychotherapeutic interventions, many individuals struggle to maintain abstinence. Recently, physical activity (PA) has emerged as a [...] Read more.

Background: Substance Use Disorders (SUDs) are chronic conditions characterized by high relapse rates and significant psychological, physical, and social complications. Despite the availability of traditional pharmacological and psychotherapeutic interventions, many individuals struggle to maintain abstinence. Recently, physical activity (PA) has emerged as a promising complementary intervention. This review aims to examine the existing evidence on the effects of PA in individuals with SUDs, with a particular focus on neurobiological mechanisms. Methods: A narrative review was conducted on 30 September 2024, searching relevant keywords on PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Scopus. Randomized clinical trials, cohort studies, reviews, and meta-analyses published between 1988 and 2024 were considered. Results: Fifty studies were included. Key themes included the role of PA in inducing neuroadaptation in individuals with SUDs, which is crucial for relapse prevention and impulse control, and the effects of PA depending on the type of PA and the specific SUD. Neurobiological modifications related to PA are of particular interest in the search for potential biomarkers. Additionally, studies explored the effects of PA on cravings, mental health, and quality of life. The review overall discusses the psychological changes induced by PA during SUD rehabilitation, identifies barriers to participation in PA programs, and suggests clinical and organizational strategies to enhance adherence. Conclusions: Physical activity is a promising adjunctive therapy for the management of Substance Use Disorders. Long-time longitudinal studies and meta-analyses are needed to sustain scientific evidence of efficacy. The success of PA programs moreover depends on overcoming barriers to adherence, including physical, psychological, and logistical challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

13 pages, 627 KiB

Open AccessReview

Thermoregulation and Endocrine Response During Exercise in Pregnancy

by Manuela Filipec and Marinela Jadanec Đurin

Physiologia 2025, 5(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5010002 - 2 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 988

Abstract

Pregnancy is followed by complex and intense physiological changes in the maternal body, whose goal is to provide all the needs of the mother and the growing fetus. The endocrine system and thermoregulation integrate physiologic responses and play an important role in maintaining [...] Read more.

Pregnancy is followed by complex and intense physiological changes in the maternal body, whose goal is to provide all the needs of the mother and the growing fetus. The endocrine system and thermoregulation integrate physiologic responses and play an important role in maintaining homeostatic conditions during exercise in pregnancy. Changes and adaptations during exercise in pregnancy are conditioned by the influence of numerous metabolic and biochemical events, which act on the target tissues through physiological mechanisms. Many hormones are released during exercise and a variety of cells are responsible for a number of different responses. Pregnancy involves changes in thermoregulation that lead to an increase in heat production and its preservation. Physiological mechanisms that enable the release of excess body temperature in order for the body to maintain an ideal temperature during exercise are increased, such as sweating and vasodilation of blood vessels. The reaction of a mother to exercise training depends on the exercise duration and intensity of training, the nutrient profile, and the level of fitness. Exercise has many improving effects on functional aspects of tissues and organs, resulting in improved health and/or performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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11 pages, 903 KiB

Open AccessReview

Ultra Short Race Pace Training (USRPT) in Swimming. Do the Volume and Interval Matter? A Scoping Review

by Konstantinos Papadimitriou

Physiologia 2024, 4(4), 506-516; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia4040034 - 16 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1323

Abstract

Background: Ultra-short race-pace training (USRPT) is designed to accustom swimmers to the pace of an event by using high volume and submaximal intensity with short intervals. However, due to imprecise data on volume and interval, further investigation is necessary. This scoping review [...] Read more.

Background: Ultra-short race-pace training (USRPT) is designed to accustom swimmers to the pace of an event by using high volume and submaximal intensity with short intervals. However, due to imprecise data on volume and interval, further investigation is necessary. This scoping review aims to provide evidence-based insights into the advantages and disadvantages of recommended volumes and intervals during USRPT, guiding swimming coaches and offering practical advice regarding this training method. Methods: For this analysis, 90,613 studies from PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were screened to examine the volume and interval of the USRPT method. Results: Only five studies met the inclusion criteria, were further assessed using a PRISMA-P document, and were analyzed for biases with the revised Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomized crossover trials. Excessive daily use of USRPT in training volume is discouraged due to potential psychological strain. Reaching failure should involve modifying variables such as intensity and interval. Additionally, interval periods should vary based on the targeted event’s physiological demands and the USRPT set’s volume. For short-distance events (50–100 m), it is recommended that USRPT protocols include a work-to-rest ratio of 1:1 or 1:2, allowing more time for aerobic contribution to replenish energy supplies (consistent with HIIT and SIIT principles). Conclusions: Further research on specific elements of USRPT, including volume and interval, is essential to identify the most effective training sets for swimmers across different distances and styles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 579 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Role of Exogenous Ketones in Road Cycling: Evidence, Mechanisms, and Performance Claims

by Sebastian Sitko

Physiologia 2024, 4(4), 433-444; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia4040029 - 24 Nov 2024

Viewed by 2034

Abstract

Background: Ketone body supplementation has emerged as a potential ergogenic aid in cycling. Exogenous ketones, primarily in the form of beta-hydroxybutyrate, offer an alternative fuel source, bypassing the need for strict ketogenic diets. However, the science surrounding their efficacy remains complex, with [...] Read more.

Background: Ketone body supplementation has emerged as a potential ergogenic aid in cycling. Exogenous ketones, primarily in the form of beta-hydroxybutyrate, offer an alternative fuel source, bypassing the need for strict ketogenic diets. However, the science surrounding their efficacy remains complex, with mixed field findings and unexplored mechanisms. Methods: A narrative review of the current literature was conducted, synthesizing studies on the metabolic and cognitive effects of ketone bodies in cycling. The review included an examination of human and mechanistic studies, along with emerging hypotheses on ketone bodies and their role in modulating red blood cell production and recovery processes. Results: Ketone body supplementation can theoretically spare glycogen, reduce muscle protein breakdown, enhance fat oxidation, and improve recovery by mitigating oxidative stress and inflammation. Additionally, ketone bodies may support cognitive function, reducing perceived mental fatigue. Preliminary evidence also suggests a potential role in modulating erythropoietin levels through histone acetylation, though further research is needed to establish its impact on oxygen delivery. Despite the theoretical potential, the practical assessment of field studies shows disappointing effects on performance from ketone body supplementation. Conclusions: While ketone bodies offer several potential benefits for cyclists, the variability in individual responses, lack of long-term data, and inconsistent findings in performance studies highlight the need for further research. Optimizing dosage, timing, and understanding the broader implications of ketone body supplementation will be crucial for their practical application in cycling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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10 pages, 281 KiB

Open AccessReview

Physiology of Marathon: A Narrative Review of Runners’ Profile and Predictors of Performance

by Pantelis T. Nikolaidis and Beat Knechtle

Physiologia 2024, 4(3), 317-326; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia4030019 - 23 Sep 2024

Viewed by 3860

Abstract

Marathon sports events and those who participate in them have grown over the last years, reflecting notably an augmentation of women and master runners’ participation. The aim of the present narrative review was to briefly present the results of studies on anthropometric, physiological, [...] Read more.

Marathon sports events and those who participate in them have grown over the last years, reflecting notably an augmentation of women and master runners’ participation. The aim of the present narrative review was to briefly present the results of studies on anthropometric, physiological, and training characteristics, as well as predictors of performance, in marathon runners. It was observed that performance was better in runners with a small body weight, body mass index, body fat percentage, and rate of endomorphy. Regarding physiology, an increased maximal oxygen uptake, anaerobic threshold, and improved running economy could result in a faster race time. The training variables that could predict performance involved weekly training volume (distance) and intensity (running speed), as well as history of training (years). A combination of these three broad categories of characteristics may offer an approximate estimation of the race speed considering that other aspects (e.g., nutrition, biomechanics, and motivation) influence race performance, too. In summary, the findings of the present study provided an overview of the anthropometric, physiological, and training characteristics associated with marathon race times; thus, optimization of any of these characteristics would be expected to improve the race time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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Jump to: Research, Review

11 pages, 1380 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Aerobic Power and Capacity in Highly Trained National-Level Youth Soccer Players Through On-Field Gas Exchange Assessment in an Ecological Context: A Brief Report

by Martin Fernando Bruzzese, Gastón César García, Carlos Rodolfo Arcuri, Mauro Darío Santander, Jeremías David Secchi, José Augusto Rodrigues dos Santos and Rodrigo Zacca

Physiologia 2025, 5(2), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5020014 - 10 Apr 2025

Viewed by 412

Abstract

Background: Extensive data exists on external load during training and competition, but a significant gap remains in understanding internal physiological load, particularly in protocols conducted in ecological settings. Given the scarcity of studies on the on-field cardiorespiratory profiles of national-level athletes, especially in [...] Read more.

Background: Extensive data exists on external load during training and competition, but a significant gap remains in understanding internal physiological load, particularly in protocols conducted in ecological settings. Given the scarcity of studies on the on-field cardiorespiratory profiles of national-level athletes, especially in Argentine soccer, this study aimed to identify the on-field cardiorespiratory fitness profile of ten highly trained youth field soccer players (13.6 ± 1.3 years old) from both the first league of the Argentine Football Association and members of the national team in their age group category in the current year. Methods: Each athlete performed an on-field cardiorespiratory exercise test (20-m Shuttle Run Test, 20-m SRT) with the COSMED K5 wearable metabolic system (COSMED, Rome, Italy) in dynamic micro-mixing chamber mode. The 20-m Shuttle Run Test involves running back and forth between two lines set 20 m apart, following the pace set by an audio signal. The test starts at a running velocity of 8.5 km·h⁻¹ and increases by 0.5 km·h⁻¹ each min. Results: Mean velocity at maximal oxygen uptake (v

\dot{V}

O_2max) was 12.3 ± 0.7 km·h⁻¹. The maximal oxygen uptake (

\dot{V}

O_2max) on-field was 67.1 ± 5.3 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹. The

\dot{V}

O₂ at the first and second ventilatory thresholds (VT1 and VT2) were identified at 67.0 ± 3.0%

\dot{V}

O_2max (44.9 ± 3.3 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) and 84.7 ± 3.7%

\dot{V}

O_2max (56.8 ± 3.8 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹), respectively. Conclusions: This is a scarce on-field gas exchange assessment, conducted in an ecological context using a portable analyzer with highly trained national-level youth soccer players from the Argentine youth national team, which underlines their cardiorespiratory fitness, showcases their high-performance potential, offers valuable insights into a selective group of players, and provides a reference for larger-scale research on elite youth soccer and the long-term development of aerobic power and capacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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25 pages, 473 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

The Metabolic Demand of Firefighting: A Systematic Review

by Marcel Lopes dos Santos, Robert G. Lockie, Robin Orr, Taylor Dinyer-McNeely, Doug Smith, Samantha McDonald and Jay Dawes

Physiologia 2025, 5(2), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5020012 - 28 Mar 2025

Viewed by 247

Abstract

Background: The aim of this systematic review was to collect, appraise, and synthesize the available information related to the cardiovascular and metabolic demands of commonly performed firefighting tasks while wearing personal protective equipment (PPE) inclusive of self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). Methods: Following [...] Read more.

Background: The aim of this systematic review was to collect, appraise, and synthesize the available information related to the cardiovascular and metabolic demands of commonly performed firefighting tasks while wearing personal protective equipment (PPE) inclusive of self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). Methods: Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, academic databases (PubMed, Embase, and SPORTDiscus databases) were searched for relevant records which were subjected to dedicated eligibility criteria with included articles quality appraised using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) checklist. Results: Of an initial 1463 identified records, 20 studies with a mean CASP of 8.26/11 informed the review. A myriad of varying field tests have been employed to determine physical preparedness and assess the metabolic demand of firefighting. Conclusions: The volume of evidence suggests that PPE and SCBA must be incorporated when assessing the demands of firefighting as they clearly increase the metabolic cost of combined simulated firefighting tasks. Although real-world scenarios are made up of a combination of individual firefighting tasks, there remains a clear need to determine the metabolic cost of isolated firefighting tasks such as forcible entry, hose drag, victim rescue, ladder raise, and stair climbing with and without PPE and SCBA. The quantification of the metabolic demand of these tasks may assist tactical trainers when designing simulated scenarios and training programs for firefighters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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21 pages, 504 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Effects of Saddle Position on Cycling: An Umbrella Review

by Pedro Castro Vigário, Ricardo Maia Ferreira, António Rodrigues Sampaio and Pedro Nunes Martins

Physiologia 2024, 4(4), 465-485; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia4040032 - 9 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2325

Abstract

Objective: This study aimed to perform an umbrella review of existing systematic reviews on the effects of saddle position on cycling. Material and methods: We conducted a systematic search across the electronic databases EBSCO, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and B-On for systematic [...] Read more.

Objective: This study aimed to perform an umbrella review of existing systematic reviews on the effects of saddle position on cycling. Material and methods: We conducted a systematic search across the electronic databases EBSCO, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and B-On for systematic reviews investigating the effects of saddle position on cycling, following the guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement. To prevent the risk of bias, two researchers independently performed the search. To evaluate the methodological quality of the included reviews, the Assessing the Methodological Quality of Systematic Reviews 2 (AMSTAR 2) checklist was used. Results: A total of seven systematic reviews that met the eligible criteria were included. The systematic reviews showed high heterogeneity among themselves (e.g., type of included studies, participants’ characteristics, or evaluated outcomes) and low to critically low methodological quality. Relationships have been found between the rider’s saddle position and health issues (such as low back pain (four studies), knee injury or pain (three studies), lumbar kyphosis (one study), and impact on perineum (two studies)), and on performance alterations (such as, muscle activation, oxygen uptake, load and intensity, efficiency (one study), and comfort (one study)). The results showed that some research provided conflicting evidence in regard to the studied relations (e.g., knee injury or pain, impact on perineum, and efficiency). Conclusions: Cyclists’ saddle position impacts various issues related to health and performance. More research is needed, and future studies should focus on the clarification of the conflicting evidence observed in this review. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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10 pages, 2005 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Impact of High-Intensity Exercise on BDNF Levels and Its Implications in High-Performance Sport: A Systematic Review

by Fernando Moreno-Infantes, Gema Díaz-Quesada, Krizia Radesca-Fabiano, Guilermo Muñoz-Andradas and Diego Domínguez-Balmaseda

Physiologia 2024, 4(4), 414-423; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia4040027 - 19 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1688

Abstract

The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a crucial protein in the development of the cognitive system. It regulates the growth of neurons and glial cells, synaptic plasticity, and neuroprotection. Background/Objectives: It has been suggested that high-intensity exercise could modulate the mechanisms of BDNF [...] Read more.

The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a crucial protein in the development of the cognitive system. It regulates the growth of neurons and glial cells, synaptic plasticity, and neuroprotection. Background/Objectives: It has been suggested that high-intensity exercise could modulate the mechanisms of BDNF release, with potentially significant implications in the professional sports world. However, this is not yet fully proven, and the underlying physiological alterations are unknown. Methods: This paper reviews the current scientific literature to clarify the uncertainties about how high-intensity physical exercise influences BDNF release and its relationship with high-performance sports. Results: Strenuous exercise appears to increase BDNF synthesis through the action of lactate and the PGC-1α/FNDC5 pathway. Additionally, cognitive function has been described as an element to consider for maximizing sports performance. Conclusions: In this regard, this review provides a solid starting point for further investigation into the molecular mechanisms that promote BDNF expression mediated by exercise, as well as for seeking a direct correlation between the role of cognitive development and athletic performance in high-performance athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)

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