The Integration of Biopolymer-Based Materials for Energy Storage Applications: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theory
2.1. Cathodes
2.2. Anodes
2.3. Electrolytes
3. Biopolymer Materials
3.1. Silk
3.2. Keratin
3.3. Collagen
3.4. Chitosan
3.5. Cellulose
3.6. Agarose
Biopolymer | Natural Source | Characteristics | Applications |
---|---|---|---|
Silk | Silkworms, spiders [60] | Highly crystalline, biocompatible, biodegradable, high mechanical strength [61]. | Separator for lithium ion [92] and lithium sulfur batteries [93]. |
Keratin | Hair, wool (α), reptiles (β) [66] | Stable, self-assembling, strong mechanical properties [65]. | Anode in lithium ion batteries [94], electrolyte in zinc-based batteries [95], scaffold in supercapacitors [96]. |
Collagen | Leather waste [71] | Fibrous, excellent elasticity and strength [69]. | Anode in lithium ion batteries [97], electrolyte in zinc-based batteries [98], separator in supercapacitors [99], electrode in supercapacitors [100]. |
Chitosan | Exoskeletons, fungi cell walls [72] | Biocompatible, biodegradable, functional as a chelating agent [75]. | Additive for cathode and separator in lithium sulfur batteries [101], electrolyte in zinc-based batteries [102]. |
Cellulose | Plants, tunica, algae, bacteria [80] | High mechanical strength, high degrees of polymerization and crystallinity [82]. | Separator in supercapacitors [103] and lithium-ion batteries [104]. |
Agarose | Seaweed [88] | Chemically stable, electrically neutral [89]. | Separator [105] and anode coating material [88] in lithium-ion batteries |
4. Fabrication and Characterization Methods
4.1. Solution Casting
4.2. Electrospinning
4.3. Carbonization Methods for Biopolymers
4.4. Three-Dimensional Printing
4.5. Characterization of Biopolymer-Based Energy Products
5. Applications
5.1. Lithium-Based Batteries
Application | Function | Initial Reversible Capacity | Coulombic Efficiency | Cycling Stability |
---|---|---|---|---|
Silk-derived hierarchical porous nitrogen-doped carbon nanosheets [92] | Anode in Li-ion | 1913 mA·h·g−1 at 0.1 A·g−1 | 49.2% at 0.1 A·g−1 | 9% loss after 10,000 cycles |
Carbonized silk fibroin nanofiber film [93] | Cathode and anode interlayers in Li/S | 1164 mA·h·g−1 at 0.2 coulomb (C) | 97.3% at 1.0 C | 69% retention after 200 cycles |
Silk-derived N/P co-doped porous carbon mixed with sulfur [128] | Cathode in Li/s | 888.5 mA·h·g−1 at 1.0 C | 97.6% at 1.0 C | 0.032% loss per cycle over 500 cycles at 1.0 C |
Keratin-derived carbon added to TiNb2O7 [94] | Anode in Li-ion | 356 mA·h·g−1 at 0.1 C | 55.0% at 0.1 C | 85% retention after 50 cycles at 1 C |
Keratin-derived carbon combined with α-Fe2O3 nanoparticles [129] | Anode in Li-ion | 1690 mA·h·g−1 at 0.2 C | 75% at 0.2 C | Capacity of 1000 mA·h·g−1 at 0.2 C after 200 cycles |
Collagenous bone-based hierarchical porous carbon combined with sulfur [130] | Cathode in Li/S battery | 1265 mA·h·g−1 | – | Capacity of 643 mA·h·g−1 after 50 cycles |
Collagenous hierarchical porous carbon added to sulfur [124] | Cathode in Li/S battery | 1426 mA·h·g−1 | Greater than 98% at 1 C after 100 cycles | 81% retention after 50 cycles at 1 C |
Collagen doped with Pd/PdO nanoparticles [97] | Anode in Li/S battery | 276 mA·h·g−1 | – | 200 mA·h·g−1 after 20 cycles |
Chitosan combined with sulfur and separately chitosan combined with carbon [101] | Cathode and separator, respectively in LiS | 1145 mA·h·g−1 | 98% atvarious cycling rates after 100 cycles | Capacity of 646 mA·h·g−1 after 100 cycles at 1 C |
Mesoporous cellulose nanocrystal membrane [104] | Membrane for Li-ion | 122 mA·h·g−1 at C/2 | Nearly 100% after initial decay | Retention above 90% up to C |
Bacterial cellulose combined with Al2O3 in a membrane [133] | Separator for Li-ion | 161 mA·h·g−1 at 0.2 C | – | 89% retention after 50 cycles at 0.2 C |
Cross linked bacterial cellulose gel [125] | Electrolyte for Li-ion | 141.2 mA·h·g−1 at 0.5 C | 89.46% at 0.5 C | 104.2% retention after 150 cycles at 0.5 C |
Lignocellulose-based gel [134] | Electrolyte for LiS | 1186.3 mA·h·g−1 at 20 mA·g−1 | – | 55.1% capacity retention after 100 cycles at 20 mA·g−1 |
Hard carbon from agarose [88] | Binder for LiMn2O4 cathode | 101 mA·h·g−1 at 0.05 C | ~96.2% at 0.05 C | ~100% retention after 400 cycles at 0.2 C |
Uniform agarose film combined with copper foil [136] | Protective layer for Li anode | 117.1 mA·h·g−1 at 1.75 mA·cm−2 | 96% at 4 mAh cm−2 | 87.1% retention after 500 cycles at 1.75 mA·cm−2 |
5.2. Zinc-Based Batteries
5.3. Capacitors
6. Conclusions, Challenges, and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Material | Function | Initial Reversible Capacity | Coulombic Efficiency | Cycling Stability |
---|---|---|---|---|
Silk II–silk fibroin [137] | Coating for Zn anode | 189 mA·h·g−1 at 0.1 A·g1 | As high as 99.7% | As long as 3300 h at 10 mA·cm−2 and 10 mA·h·cm−2 |
Gelatin–silk protein film [98] | Electrolyte film | 311.7 mA·h·g−1 | Greater than 90% over 100 cycles | Greater than 90% over 100 cycles |
Carrageenan and wool keratin bio gel [95] | Electrolyte film | 271.6 mA·h·g−1 at 0.1 A·g1 | ~98% | 96% capacity retention after 500 cycles |
Chitosan-based gel electrolyte with poly(vinyl alcohol) added [102] | Electrolyte film | 310 mA·h·g−1 at 0.1 A·g1 | 96.5% at 0.5 A·g−1 | ~70% capacity retention after 300 cycles |
A sustainable chitosan-zinc electrolyte for high-rate zinc metal batteries [138] | Electrolyte | 208 mA·h·g−1 | 99.7% | Greater than 400 cycles |
Chitosan modified filter paper [139] | Separator | 323 mA·h·g−1 at 0.1 A·g1 | 99.6% at 1 mA·cm−2 and 1 mA·h·cm−2 | 98.4% retention over 1000 cycles |
Material | Function | Capacitance | Surface Area | Cycling Stability |
---|---|---|---|---|
Graphene-integrated porous carbon derived from collagen [140] | Electrode | 365 F·g−1 at 1 mV·s−1 | 1087 m2·g−1 | 97% capacitance retention after 10,000 cycles at 100 mV·s−1 |
N-doped carbon nanosheets from collagen cross linked with paraformaldehyde [99] | Electrode | 102 F·g−1 at 25 mV·s−1 | 695 m2·g−1 | 80% capacitance retention at 1000 mV·s−1 |
Collagen fiber membrane cross linked with oxidized sodium alginate [100] | Electrolyte locked separator | 143.07 F·g−1 at 5 mV·s−1 | – | 99.99% capacitance retention after 10,000 cycles at 10.0 A·g−1 |
Keratin-derived reduced graphene oxide combine with MoO2 [96] | Electrode | 256 F·g−1 at 0.02 A·g−1 | 2042 m2·g−1 | 86% capacitance retention after 1000 cycles at 0.07 A·g−1 |
Keratin-derived carbon nanosheets [67] | Electrode | 999 F·g−1 at 1 A·g−1 | 1548 m2·g−1 | 98% capacitance retention after 10,000 cycles at 5 A·g−1 |
Keratin-derived redox active carbon [142] | Electrode | 560 F·g−1 at 1 A·g−1 | 1483 m2·g−1 | 95% capacitance retention after 10,000 cycles at 5 A·g−1 |
Carbonized keratin combined with H2SO4 [143] | Electrode | 270 F·g−1 at 1 A·g−1 | 2684 m2·g−1 | 98% capacitance retention after 10,000 cycles at 10 A·g−1 |
Nanocomposite film formed from cellulose nanocrystals and polypyrrole [144] | Electrode | 336 F·g−1 | – | Limited swelling after 5000 cycles |
Cellulose paper integrated with carbon nanotubes and MnO2 [141] | Electrode | 327 F·g−1 at 200 mV·s−1 | – | 62% capacitance after 12,500 cycles |
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Dalwadi, S.; Goel, A.; Kapetanakis, C.; Salas-de la Cruz, D.; Hu, X. The Integration of Biopolymer-Based Materials for Energy Storage Applications: A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 3975. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24043975
Dalwadi S, Goel A, Kapetanakis C, Salas-de la Cruz D, Hu X. The Integration of Biopolymer-Based Materials for Energy Storage Applications: A Review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2023; 24(4):3975. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24043975
Chicago/Turabian StyleDalwadi, Shrey, Arnav Goel, Constantine Kapetanakis, David Salas-de la Cruz, and Xiao Hu. 2023. "The Integration of Biopolymer-Based Materials for Energy Storage Applications: A Review" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 4: 3975. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24043975