An Assessment of Women’s Knowledge of the Menstrual Cycle and the Influence of Diet and Adherence to Dietary Patterns on the Alleviation or Exacerbation of Menstrual Distress
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
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- Age: 18–40 years;
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- Absence of serious illnesses that constitute exclusion criteria;
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- Informed consent to participate in the study.
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- Amenorrhea (absence of menstruation);
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- Miscarriage in the previous 6 months;
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- Pregnancy;
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- Presence of biological offspring;
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- Use of hormonal drugs (other than contraceptives), steroids, antidepressants, sleeping pills, or sedatives in the previous 6 months or directly before the trial;
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- Chronic diseases and metabolic disorders, including type 1 and 2 diabetes, insulin resistance, polycystic ovary syndrome, endometriosis, sterility, infertility, hormonal disorders, thyroid disorders, kidney disorders, asthma, Crohn’s disease, anemia, eating disorders, epilepsy, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, HPV infection;
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- Diagnosed gynecological diseases or disorders, including congenital abnormalities of the reproductive tract;
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- Pelvic floor disorders;
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- Lack of consent to participate in the study.
2.2. Study Tools and Data Collection
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- <18.5 kg/m2—underweight;
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- 18.5–24.99 kg/m2—normal weight;
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- 25.0–29.99 kg/m2—overweight;
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- 30.0–34.99 kg/m2—stage I obesity;
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- >35 kg/m2—stage II obesity.
2.3. Dietary Patterns
2.4. Data Processing and Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Selected Menstrual Health Parameters
3.2. The Influence of Diet and Eating Habits on the Menstrual Cycle
3.3. Evaluation of Menstrual Health Parameters and Eating Habits in Women Adhering to Two Dietary Models
4. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Frequency of Consumption as Defined in FFQ | Conversion Factor to Daily Frequency |
---|---|
Less than once a month | 0.00 |
1–3 times a month | 0.07 |
1–2 times a week | 0.21 |
3–4 times a week | 0.50 |
5–6 times a week | 0.79 |
Once daily | 1.00 |
Twice or more daily | 2.00 |
Sociodemographic Parameters | N | N [%] | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Place of residence | <0.05 | ||
| 254 | 50.3% | |
| 110 | 21.8% | |
| 141 | 27.9% | |
Age | <0.05 | ||
| 198 | 39.2% | |
| 307 | 60.8% | |
Marital status | <0.05 | ||
| 116 | 23.0% | |
| 252 | 49.9% | |
| 137 | 27.1% | |
Education | <0.05 | ||
| 20 | 4% | |
| 165 | 32.7% | |
| 315 | 62.3% | |
| 5 | 1% | |
Professional status | <0.05 | ||
| 57 | 11.3% | |
| 159 | 31.5% | |
| 266 | 52.7% | |
| 23 | 4.5% |
Mild Pain, N = 147 (29.1%) | Moderate Pain, N = 234 (46.4%) | Severe Pain, N = 124 (24.5%) | Kruskal–Wallis Test | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | N% | N | N% | N | N% | ||
Abdominal pain | 89 | 60.5 | 177 | 75.6 | 124 | 100 | 0.003 |
Anxiety | 19 | 12.9 | 159 | 67.9 | 75 | 60.5 | 0.005 |
Generalized pain | 23 | 15.6 | 173 | 73.9 | 117 | 94.3 | 0.002 |
Uterine contractions | 106 | 72.1 | 170 | 72.6 | 95 | 76.6 | ns |
Back pain | 91 | 61.2 | 178 | 76.0 | 97 | 78.2 | ns |
Headache | 56 | 38.1 | 56 | 23.9 | 68 | 54.8 | 0.012 |
Fatigue | 39 | 26.5 | 79 | 33.7 | 84 | 67.7 | 0.003 |
Leg pain | 27 | 18.4 | 141 | 60.3 | 96 | 77.4 | 0.002 |
Nausea | 11 | 7.5 | 17 | 7.3 | 10 | 8.0 | ns |
Insomnia | 29 | 19.7 | 59 | 25.2 | 87 | 70.2 | 0.003 |
Loss of appetite | 46 | 31.3 | 72 | 33.2 | 41 | 33.1 | ns |
Diarrhea/constipation | 51 | 34.7 | 71 | 30.3 | 43 | 34.6 | ns |
Heart palpitations | 12 | 8.2 | 24 | 10.3 | 27 | 21.8 | 0.041 |
Intensity of Menstrual Pain | p-Value | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total N = 505 | Mild | Moderate | Severe | Severe Menstrual Pain (Ref. Mild Menstrual Pain) | ||||||
Daily Frequency | Daily Frequency | Daily Frequency | Daily Frequency | |||||||
Refined cereal products | 1.4 | (0–2) | 1.2 | (0–2) | 1.5 | (0–2) | 1.7 | (0–2) | 0.0031 | 1.76 ** (1.06–1.98) |
Whole-grain cereal products | 0.81 | (0–2) | 0.94 | (0–2) | 0.83 | (0–2) | 0.67 | (0–2) | 0.023 | 0.88 * (0.64–1.02) |
Milk | 1.5 | (0–2) | 1.5 | (0–2) | 1.4 | (0–2) | 1.4 | (0–2) | ns | 0.92 (0.89–1.14) |
Fermented milks | 0.3 | (0–2) | 0.3 | (0–2) | 0.4 | (0–2) | 0.3 | (0–2) | ns | 0.94 (0.91–1.09) |
Sweetened dairy products | 1.5 | (0–2) | 1.5 | (0–2) | 1.7 | (0–2) | 1.0 | (0–2) | 0.0016 | 0.73 (0.62–1.07) |
Fresh meat | 0.6 | (0–2) | 0.6 | (0–2) | 0.7 | (0–2) | 0.6 | (0–2) | ns | 1.02 (0.97–1.04) |
Processed meat | 1.5 | (0–2) | 1.3 | (0–2) | 1.3 | (0–2) | 1.7 | (0–2) | 0.002 | 1.54 * (1.12–1.87) |
Fish | 0.2 | (0–1) | 0.2 | (0–1) | 0.2 | (0–1) | 0.2 | (0–1) | ns | 1.03 (0.92–1.09) |
Vegetable fats | 0.4 | (0–2) | 0.4 | (0–2) | 0.5 | (0–2) | 0.3 | (0–2) | ns | 0.91 (0.81–1.01) |
Animal fats | 1.6 | (0–2) | 1.4 | (0–2) | 1.3 | (0–2) | 1.8 | (0–2) | 0.041 | 1.45 * (1.12–1.87) |
Potatoes | 0.3 | (0–0.79) | 0.3 | (0–0.79) | 0.3 | (0–0.79) | 0.3 | (0–0.79) | ns | 1.02 (0.97–1.04) |
Vegetables | 1.7 | (0–2) | 1.8 | (0–2) | 1.5 | (0–2) | 1.1 | (0–2) | 0.0027 | 0.53 ** (0.46–0.89) |
Dry legumes | 0.3 | (0–1) | 0.3 | (0–1) | 0.3 | (0–1) | 0.3 | (0–1) | ns | 1.02 (0.97–1.05) |
Nuts | 0.2 | (0–2) | 0.2 | (0–2) | 0.2 | (0–2) | 0.2 | (0–2) | ns | 1.02 (0.98–1.07) |
Fruit | 1.7 | (0–2) | 1.9 | (0–2) | 1.6 | (0–2) | 1.4 | (0–2) | 0.0027 | 0.71 * (0.64–0.89) |
Sugar and sweets | 1.6 | (0–2) | 1.1 | (0–2) | 1.4 | (0–2) | 1.9 | (0–2) | 0.001 | 2,19 ** (1.34–2.51) |
Sweetened beverages | 0.5 | (0–2) | 0.3 | (0–2) | 0.7 | (0–2) | 0.4 | (0–2) | 0.0031 | 1.19 (1.01–1.36) |
Fast foods | 0.7 | (0–1) | 0.7 | (0–1) | 0.8 | (0–1) | 0.7 | (0–1) | ns | 1.02 (0.97–1.08) |
Alcohol | 0.4 | (0–2) | 0.6 | (0–2) | 0.4 | (0–2) | 0.5 | (0–2) | 0.042 | 0.91 (0.76–1.09) |
Water | 1.7 | (0–2) | 1.6 | (0–2) | 1.1 | (0–2) | 1.8 | (0–2) | 0.0026 | 1.23 (1.01–1.46) |
Model 1 (Anti-Inflammatory) | Model 2 (Proinflammatory) | p-Value in the Chi-Squared Test | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 324 | N% | N = 181 | N% | ||
Intensity of menstrual pain | 0.015 | ||||
| 136 | 41.9% | 11 | 6% | |
| 167 | 51.5% | 67 | 37% | |
| 21 | 6.6% | 103 | 57% | |
Regular menstrual cycle | 0.041 | ||||
| 289 | 89.2% | 137 | 75.7% | |
| 35 | 10.8% | 44 | 24.3% | |
Menstrual distress symptoms | 0.017 | ||||
| 111 | 34.3 | 35 | 19.3% | |
| 186 | 57.4% | 67 | 37% | |
| 27 | 8.3% | 79 | 43.6% | |
Number of meals per day | 0.038 | ||||
| 89 | 27.5% | 46 | 25.5% | |
| 151 | 46.6% | 56 | 30.9% | |
| 84 | 25.9% | 79 | 43.6% | |
Adherence to a special diet | 0.028 | ||||
| 33 | 10.2% | 48 | 26.5% | |
| 291 | 89.8% | 133 | 73.5% | |
Consumption of light food products | 0.225 | ||||
| 81 | 25% | 54 | 29.8% | |
| 212 | 65.4% | 120 | 66.3% | |
| 31 | 9.6% | 7 | 3.9% | |
Use of dietary supplements in the previous 6 months | 0.317 | ||||
| 263 | 81.2% | 161 | 89% | |
| 61 | 18.8% | 25 | 11% | |
Increased food intake during menstruation | 0.037 | ||||
| 112 | 34.6% | 106 | 58.6% | |
| 212 | 65.4% | 75 | 41.4% | |
Increased hunger during menstruation | 0.028 | ||||
| 79 | 24.4% | 94 | 51.9% | |
| 245 | 75.6% | 87 | 48.1% | |
Knowledge about dietary components that influence mood during menstruation | 0.021 | ||||
| 247 | 76.2% | 102 | 56.4% | |
| 77 | 23.8% | 79 | 43.6% | |
Knowledge about the menstrual cycle | 0.036 | ||||
| 105 | 32.4% | 98 | 54.1% | |
| 219 | 67.6% | 83 | 45.9% | |
The influence of diet on the men-strual cycle | 0.029 | ||||
| 0 | - | 13 | 7.2% | |
| 54 | 16.7% | 36 | 19.9% | |
| 124 | 38.3% | 75 | 41.4% | |
| 146 | 45% | 57 | 31.5% |
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Ciołek, A.; Kostecka, M.; Kostecka, J.; Kawecka, P.; Popik-Samborska, M. An Assessment of Women’s Knowledge of the Menstrual Cycle and the Influence of Diet and Adherence to Dietary Patterns on the Alleviation or Exacerbation of Menstrual Distress. Nutrients 2024, 16, 69. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16010069
Ciołek A, Kostecka M, Kostecka J, Kawecka P, Popik-Samborska M. An Assessment of Women’s Knowledge of the Menstrual Cycle and the Influence of Diet and Adherence to Dietary Patterns on the Alleviation or Exacerbation of Menstrual Distress. Nutrients. 2024; 16(1):69. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16010069
Chicago/Turabian StyleCiołek, Anna, Malgorzata Kostecka, Julianna Kostecka, Paulina Kawecka, and Monika Popik-Samborska. 2024. "An Assessment of Women’s Knowledge of the Menstrual Cycle and the Influence of Diet and Adherence to Dietary Patterns on the Alleviation or Exacerbation of Menstrual Distress" Nutrients 16, no. 1: 69. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16010069