Next Article in Journal
Hydrogen Production via the Oxy-Steam Reforming of LNG or Methane on Ni Catalysts
Next Article in Special Issue
Selectivity Dependence of 1,1-Difluoro-1-Chloroethane Dehydrohalogenation on the Metal–Support Interaction over SrF2 Catalyst
Previous Article in Journal
Poisoning Effects of Phosphorus, Potassium and Lead on V2O5-WO3/TiO2 Catalysts for Selective Catalytic Reduction with NH3
Previous Article in Special Issue
Ca-Doped CrOX/γ-Al2O3 Catalysts with Improved Dehydrogenation Performance for the Conversion of Isobutane to Isobutene
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Catalysts
Volume 10
Issue 3
10.3390/catal10030347
catalysts-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Catalytic Oxidation of Chlorobenzene over Pd-TiO2 /Pd-Ce/TiO2 Catalysts

by
Wenjun Liang
*,
Xiaoyan Du
,
Yuxue Zhu
,
Sida Ren
and
Jian Li
Beijing University of Technology, Key Laboratory of Beijing on Regional Air Pollution Control, Beijing 100124, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Catalysts 2020, 10(3), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal10030347
Submission received: 19 February 2020 / Revised: 16 March 2020 / Accepted: 17 March 2020 / Published: 20 March 2020
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal/Metal Oxide-Support Interactions in Heterogeneous Catalysis)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
A series of Pd-TiO2/Pd-Ce/TiO2 catalysts were prepared by an equal volume impregnation method. The effects of different Pd loadings on the catalytic activity of chlorobenzene (CB) were investigated, and the results showed that the activity of the 0.2%-0.3% Pd/TiO2 catalyst was optimal. The effect of Ce doping enhanced the catalytic activity of the 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 catalyst. The characterization of the catalysts using BET, TEM, H2-TPR, and O2-TPD showed that the oxidation capacity was enhanced, and the catalytic oxidation efficiency was improved due to the addition of Ce. Ion chromatography and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometer results showed that small amounts of dichlorobenzene (DCB) and trichlorobenzene (TCB) were formed during the decomposition of CB. The results also indicated that the calcination temperature greatly influenced the catalyst activity and a calcination temperature of 550 °C was the best. The concentration of CB affected its decomposition, but gas hourly space velocity had little effect. H2-TPR indicated strong metal–support interactions and increased dispersion of PdO in the presence of Ce. HRTEM data showed PdO with a characteristic spacing of 0.26 nm in both 0.2% Pd /TiO2 and 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 catalysts. The average sizes of PdO nanoparticles in the 0.2% Pd/TiO2 and 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 samples were 5.8 and 4.7 nm, respectively. The PdO particles were also deposited on the support and they were separated from each other in both catalysts.

1. Introduction

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) contribute greatly to air pollution, such as chemical smog and atmospheric haze, and seriously affect the health of the population. Chlorobenzene (CB) is a flammable organic compound that is used in dyes, pesticides, paints, rubber additives, and intermediates in organic synthesis [1,2,3]. Excessive amounts of atmospheric CB can cause environmental pollution and also affects human health [4,5]. Therefore, increasingly strict regulations have been implemented to control various chlorine-containing VOCs, including CB. Catalytic oxidation techniques have been used to treat environmental CB pollution because of their low reaction temperatures, high purification efficiencies, and low secondary pollution generation [6,7,8,9]. The key to catalytic oxidation is to obtain a high activity and stability, and catalysts with few by-products, strong anti-poisoning characteristics, and low prices have been developed [10].
Commercial catalysts for the catalytic oxidation of CB are based on either noble metals or supported transition metal oxides [11]. Many studies [12,13,14,15] have reported that noble metal catalysts with good oxidation properties can help reduce the CO selectivity, reduce the temperature of the Deacon reaction, and prevent the accumulation of HCl on the catalyst surface, which can improve the stability of the catalyst. Bimetallic catalysts commonly show higher catalytic activities, selectivity, and anti-poisoning abilities compared with monometallic materials due to synergistic effects [10,16,17,18,19,20,21].
Dai et al. [22] studied the catalytic oxidation of CB over Ru/Ti-CeO2 catalysts and showed that 1% Ru/Ti5Ce95 and 1% Ru/Ti10Ce90 catalysts reached a conversion rate of 90% at 220 °C. When tested at 225 °C for 100 h, the activity of the catalysts decreased in the first 10 h, and then increased before stabilizing at 90%. Liu [10] studied the catalytic oxidation of CB over noble metal catalysts Pd/TiO2, Pt/TiO2, Ru/TiO2, and Rh/TiO2, and the results showed that the T90% of Pd/TiO2 was 340 °C. In addition, the stability of the active component was increased by adding auxiliaries and reducing the surface area of carbon in the catalyst. F. A. Silva et al. [23] introduced Ce in Pt/Al2O3, Pt/Ce/Al2O3, and Pd/CeZrO2/Al2O3 catalysts. It was proposed that the doping of Ce increased the thermal stability of Al2O3, which increased the dispersion of metals and improved the catalytic activity. The development of low-cost, high-performance catalysts is of great significance for practical industrial applications. Rare earth metals have been introduced into precious metal catalysts, and precious metal-rare earth metal two-way catalytic systems have been used to obtain excellent oxygen storage and release performance. Replacing precious metals with rare earths without reducing the catalytic performance due to a lower precious metal content remains challenging [24,25,26,27], and the precious metal loading in previous studies has generally been about 1%. Considering the high price of precious metals, a certain amount of rare earths has been considered to replace precious metals to prevent reducing the catalytic performance, especially at high space velocities. Due to the larger space velocity under actual working conditions, the experimental space velocity has been increased to 30,000 h−1 [3,28].
Hence, this work studies the performance of a series of Pd/TiO2 catalysts and Pd-Ce bimetallic catalysts for the catalytic combustion of CB. The structural characteristics and chemical properties of the prepared catalysts were characterized and analyzed using TEM, BET, H2-TPR, and O2-TPD. In addition, the catalytic oxidation activity and reaction conditions of low concentrations of CB were investigated. The catalyst performance was evaluated by analyzing both the catalytic activity and by-product formation.

2. Results and Discussion

2.1. Catalyst Characterization

The nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms of TiO2, 0.2% Pd/TiO2, and 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 are shown in Figure 1. All the isotherms were classified as type IV, and an H3 lag loop appeared at relative pressures (p/p0) from 0.6 to 1.0, indicating the mesoporous structure of the catalyst [29]. These results indicated the presence of large channel-like pores within a narrow pore size distribution range.
In order to accurately determine the actual content of active components in the catalysts, 0.2% Pd/TiO2 and 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 were selected for ICP-OES analysis. Two parallel samples were tested, and the average value was taken as the test result, which is listed in Table 1.
Table 1 shows that the actual loading of Pd and Ce was lower than the calculated loading, possibly because a certain amount of active components was lost during catalyst preparation. The textural parameters of the samples, such as the BET specific surface area, pore volume, and average pore size, are listed in Table 2. In Table 2, SBET, pore volume, and pore size of the supported TiO2 catalyst were 65.4 m2/g, 0.35 cm3/g, and 21.6 nm, and those of the 0.2% Pd/TiO2 catalyst were 65.7 m2/g, 0.45 cm3/g, and 27.2 nm, respectively. These values indicated that the addition of Pd increased the specific surface area and pore volume of the catalyst. In addition, the introduction of Ce to 0.2% Pd/TiO2 effectively increased the specific surface area and pore volume, which likely enhanced the catalytic performance. The effect of the active component addition on the surface morphology of the catalyst was also analyzed.
Figure 2a,b shows representative TEM images of 0.2% Pd/TiO2 and 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 samples, while Figure 2c,d show HRTEM images of 0.2% Pd/TiO2 and 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2. Both 0.2% Pd /TiO2 and 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 showed PdO with a characteristic spacing of 0.26 nm. The 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 sample showed an expected spacing of 0.34 nm for CeO2, as also found in the XRD results [30,31]. The average sizes of PdO nanoparticles in the 0.2% Pd/TiO2 and 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 samples were 5.8 and 4.7 nm, respectively, indicating that the particle size of the PdO noticeably decreased after the addition of CeO2, which improved the catalytic reaction [32]. Besides, from Figure 2, for Pd/TiO2 and Pd-Ce/TiO2 catalysts, we can see that the PdO particles were deposited on the support and they are separated from each other.
In addition, PdO exhibited irregular particle shapes. After doping with Ce, the catalyst particle size decreased, and the dispersion became more uniform, which indicated that the doping of Ce improved the dispersion of PdO. During catalyst preparation, pores were simultaneously formed in the shell and core. The presence of mesopores and cavities may facilitate more efficient transport of CB through the pores to reach active sites, which can improve the catalytic activity.
Changes in the reductive properties are usually evaluated by H2 temperature-programmed reduction (TPR), and the resulting TPR profiles can be differentiated both by the integral of the profiles and by a shift in the peak temperature. The former corresponds to the H2 consumption, while the latter indicates the reducibility of the metal sites. Compared with the support, the TiO2 reduction peaks shifted to a lower temperature. The H2-TPR profiles of Pd/TiO2 and pure TiO2 catalysts are shown in Figure 3. A reduction peak appeared in the TiO2 carrier, which corresponded to TiO2 reduction at 429 °C, indicating that the carrier itself possessed a certain catalytic activity. The addition of Pd helped decrease other oxidation processes [33]. Two reduction peaks appeared in the Pd/TiO2 catalyst, and the peak at 237 °C was attributed to the reduction of PdO. This temperature was higher than that reported in the literature, possibly due to strong interactions between PdO and the TiO2 carrier. As the Pd loading increased, the PdO reduction peak strengthened, the peak area increased, and the TiO2 reduction peak appeared forward. The H2 consumption increased upon increasing the Pd loading. When the Pd content in the Pd/TiO2 catalyst reached 0.4%, the PdO reduction peak overlapped with the TiO2 reduction peak, which coincided with reference 34 [34]. The catalytic activity was closely related to the H2-TPR test results. If the catalyst was easily reduced, it had a relatively high oxygen mobility, which resulted in a relatively high oxidation activity. According to the peak fitting results, 0.2% Pd/TiO2 and 0.3% Pd/TiO2 catalysts had the largest reduction peak areas and best theoretical activities, which was consistent with the actual test results.
Furthermore, Figure 4 shows that the Pd/TiO2 catalyst had two reduction peaks in its H2-TPR profile, the peak at 237 °C was attributed to the reduction of PdO, and the peak at 341 °C was attributed to the reduction of TiO2. Figure 4 also shows that the PdO and TiO2 reduction peaks overlapped, and the position of the PdO reduction peak appeared later. According to the position of the peak, it was concluded that the dispersion of precious metal was increased after adding Ce, which also increased the low-temperature activity of the catalyst. In addition, the small peak at 521 °C was attributed to the reduction of highly-dispersed CeO2 on the surface. Additionally, the active sites reduced at lower temperatures were separate clusters with smaller sizes. The reduction peak area of the catalyst greatly increased below 250 °C, and the reduction peak at approximately 300 °C was fitted to the surface oxygen of CeO2 and the reduction of secondary surface oxygen [35].
The O2-TPD profiles of 0.2% Pd/TiO2, 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2, and 0.2% Pd-3% Ce/TiO2 catalysts are shown in Figure 5. Three different types of desorption peaks were observed in the Pd/TiO2 catalyst at the starting and ending temperatures (0–800 °C), and desorption peaks appeared at 100, 300–600, and 600–800 °C. In general, physically-adsorbed oxygen species and chemisorbed oxygen species were more easily desorbed than lattice oxygen species, so the desorption peak appearing below 600 °C was due to catalyst adsorption. The amount of desorbed oxygen corresponded to the number of holes on the surface, and the O vacancies served as a conversion medium between the gas phase oxygen and the lattice oxygen. The desorption peak appearing after 600 °C corresponded to the lattice oxygen.
Figure 5 also shows that the introduction of Ce to the 0.2% Pd/TiO2 catalyst had no significant effect on the physically-adsorbed oxygen near 100 °C, while the surface-adsorbed oxygen from 300–600 °C was significantly decreased. As the Ce content increased, the desorption peak of surface-adsorbed oxygen gradually decreased. Since the CB catalytic experiments were carried out from 200 −450 °C, the activity might be affected, but it was still superior to the 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 catalyst activity, and the performance of the 0.2% Pd-3% Ce/TiO2 catalyst was identical. However, after the introduction of Ce, the catalyst exhibited distinct desorption peaks corresponding to lattice oxygen species, and the intensity of the peak increased and appeared earlier. This indicates that the Pd-Ce/TiO2 catalyst had more lattice oxygen species, as well as a higher oxygen mobility and redox activity.

2.2. Effect of Calcination Temperature on Catalytic Performance

As reported in some literatures [36,37], the calcination temperature can significantly affect the activity and selectivity of catalysts by changing the molecular structures of catalysts. Consequently, the effect of calcination temperature was investigated for the Pd/TiO2 catalyst. The conversion of CB over Pd/TiO2 catalysts prepared at different calcination temperatures is shown in Figure 6. Among all Pd/TiO2 catalysts, the conversion rate of CB first increased and then decreased with the calcination temperature. Figure 6 shows that 500–550 °C was the best calcination temperature, indicating that this catalyst has an optimum specific surface area and pore structure, confirming the critical role of surface Pd/TiO2 in enhancing the catalytic activity. The catalyst was not sufficiently calcined at low calcination temperatures, which resulted in insufficient exposure of active sites on the surface and a low crystallinity of the active components. Combined, these effects reduced the oxygen storage and active oxygen transfer abilities and led to a low catalytic efficiency. When the calcination temperature was too high, the supported active material was sintered, and the pore structures were collapsed, or small pores were blocked with increased calcination temperature, especially > 550 °C.

2.3. Effect of Pd Loading on the Catalytic Performance

The catalytic combustion of CB was studied over Pd-based and pure TiO2 catalysts, and the experimental results are listed in Figure 7. Compared with the pure TiO2 catalyst, the Pd-based catalysts showed higher activities, and the complete oxidation of CB was achieved below 410 °C over all Pd/TiO2 catalysts, except for the pure TiO2 catalyst. The CB conversion rate increased with the reaction temperature. The higher activity of the Pd/TiO2 catalysts was attributed to the better reducibility of the TiO2 support (Ti4+ to Ti3+) [11]. A two-step reaction scheme was proposed [38] in which CB is first oxidized by oxygen species supplied by Ti4+ which is transformed to Ti3+; secondly, the previously dissociated oxygen species present on the Pd sites re-oxidize Ti3+ to Ti4+.
Moreover, the catalytic activities first increased and then decreased upon increasing the Pd loading, and the highest CB oxidation was achieved at Pd loadings of 0.2%–0.3%. The T50 was about 270–280 °C, and the T90 was about 370 °C, but the two kinds of catalysts showed negligible differences. However, it was found that the 0.1% Pd/TiO2 catalyst showed a lower activity from 200 to 450 °C, which was ascribed to partial deactivation due to the lower PdO content. This shows that more active ingredients provide more active sites, which facilitates the reaction. However, the maximum loading was not achieved because when the active component loading exceeded the dispersion threshold, excess crystal phase covered the active sites and the catalyst surface pores, which hindered the reaction progress and decreased the catalytic activity.

2.4. Effect of Ce Doping on the Pd/TiO2 Catalyst

To test the effect of Ce loading on the catalytic activity of the Pd/TiO2 catalyst and further reduce the precious metal content, 0.2% Pd/TiO2 catalyst was investigated, and the influence of different Ce loadings on the 0.2% Pd/TiO2 catalyst performance was also investigated. CeO2 plays an important role as a co-catalyst in the catalytic combustion of chlorinated volatile organic compounds (CVOCs), because Ce has two stable oxidation states (Ce4+ and Ce3+), which allows oxygen to be stored and released by redox conversion between Ce4+ and Ce3+ [39,40]. The catalysts doped with CeO2 have more mobile active oxygen species, so they have higher catalytic activities.
The catalytic combustion of CB was studied over Pd-Ce/TiO2 and Pd/TiO2 catalysts, and the experimental results are listed in Figure 8. Compared with the 0.2% Pd/TiO2 catalyst, the 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 catalyst had a higher activity, and its T50 and T90 were 270 °C and 340 °C, respectively. The catalytic activity decreased with increasing Ce loading. The catalytic activity of the 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 catalyst was 67% at 300 °C, while the conversion on the 0.2% Pd-4% Ce/TiO2 catalyst was only 49%. The lower activity may be due to Ce covering the precious metal Pd and occupying active sites. However, the addition of Ce significantly improved the thermal stability of the catalysts.

2.5. Effect of Inlet CB Concentration and Space Velocity on Catalytic Performance

The activity of the 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 catalyst was evaluated with the catalytic combustion reaction of CB under different inlet concentrations and space velocities, and the results are presented in Figure 9 and Figure 10, respectively. As indicated in Figure 9, the conversion of CB decreased upon increasing the CB concentration, and complete conversion was achieved at 450 °C for all CB concentrations. This is important to the industrial use of these catalysts because the concentration of pollutants in actual working conditions is usually unstable. Upon increasing the initial CB concentration, the conversion of CB decreased at the same temperature, and the conversion curve gradually shifted towards a higher temperature, indicating that more molecules were converted at higher temperatures.
Additionally, the conversion of CB decreased upon increasing the space velocity because the residence time for feed molecules through the catalyst bed decreased upon increasing the space velocity. A suitably high temperature is needed to achieve a sufficient conversion at higher space velocities. In our experiment, the highest CB conversion was only 85% when the space velocity was 240,000 h−1. In addition, when the space velocity was lower than 30,000 h−1, changing the space velocity had little effect on the catalytic activity of the CB conversion. This indicated that when the space velocity was low, the influence of extra molecular diffusion on the catalytic reaction process was eliminated. When the space velocity was higher than 30,000 h−1, the reaction time between the CB mixed gas and the catalyst became shorter, the catalytic reaction was incomplete, and the catalytic activity decreased. Therefore, the best CB conversion could be obtained when the space velocity was 30,000 h−1 in our experiment.

2.6. By-Product Generation in the Gas Effluent

Clad served as the active Cl species to form HCl, Cl2, or Cl-containing by-products during chlorination [10]. Thus, in this experiment, Clad was detected with the absorption method. Figure 11 shows that the selectivity of Cl− increased upon increasing the reaction temperature, and the selectivity of the 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 catalyst was higher than that of the 0.2% Pd/TiO2 catalyst. At all reaction temperatures, the highest Cl− selectivity of the 0.2% Pd/TiO2 catalyst was 15.3%, and that of the 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 catalyst was 16.2%. The low selectivity of Cl− may have been due to the trapping method of gas effluent or the low concentration of inorganic Cl−.
To evaluate the generation of organic by-products, GC-MS was employed. The outlet gas was collected using an adsorption column for 30 min, followed by degassing the column in a thermal analyzer equipped with a GC-MS. Figure 12 and Table 3 show that during the catalytic oxidation of CB by the Pd/TiO2 catalyst, polychlorinated benzene by-products were detected above 300 °C. Dichlorobenzene (DCB) was produced from 300 to 350 °C, and trichlorobenzene (TCB) was produced at 400 °C. The Pd-Ce/TiO2 catalyst detected DCB from the beginning of the catalytic oxidation of the CB reaction, and DCB and TCB from 350 to 400 °C. As the temperature continued to increase, the by-products were no longer observed. According to the formation of organic by-products, it was suspected that when the catalytic temperature was low, the catalytic reaction was incomplete, and the C–Cl bond was broken. However, the Cl species reacted with CB on the catalyst surface to form a DCB or TCB by-products. When the temperature was continuously increased to 450 °C, the by-products were not detected, but the formation conditions of polychlorobenzene are worth exploring. The immediate removal of Cl species was the key to studying the CB catalysts.
In order to analyze the CO2 selectivity of the catalysts, the COx (CO2 and CO) yields were also collected. As shown in Figure 13, at 250 °C, the CO production and selectivity were the highest, at nearly 8%. However, when the temperature increased to 400 °C, no CO was detected, indicating that during CB catalysis, CO was formed and was oxidized to CO2 at high temperatures and aerobic conditions. The amount and selectivity of CO2 also increased with increasing temperature. At 200 °C, the selectivity of CO2 was only about 30%, and after the temperature reached 400 °C, the selectivity of CO2 was over 80%. As the catalytic temperature increased, the catalytic reaction proceeded more completely. The results were not significantly different from the CO2 selectivity measured in the literature. In addition, the CO2 selectivity was slightly higher after the addition of Ce.

3. Experimental

3.1. Catalysts Preparation

Pd/TiO2 catalysts with different Pd contents were prepared by an impregnation method. A quantitative palladium chloride solution was mixed in deionized water, and TiO2 powder was slowly added as a carrier. The mixture was ultrasonically stirred for 3 h in a water bath at 60 °C, and the viscous solid was obtained. The mixture was dried in an oven at 105 °C for 2 h and then calcined in a muffle furnace at 550 °C for 3 h. The calcined material was naturally cooled, ground, pulverized, and sieved to 20–40 mesh for use.
Pd-Ce/TiO2 catalysts with different Ce contents were prepared by an impregnation method. TiO2 powder was added to a certain volume of Ce(NO3)3 and PdCl2 solution, and then ultrasonically stirred for 3 h in a 60 °C water bath until the solution was viscous. Then, it was dried at 105 °C for 2 h and calcined in a muffle furnace at 550 °C for 3 h. The calcined material was naturally cooled, grounded, pulverized, and sieved to 20–40 mesh for use.

3.2. Catalysts Characterization

The specific surface area and pore structure of the catalysts were characterized by N2 adsorption at 77 K using an automatic surface area and porosity analyzer (ASAP 2020, Micromeritics, Atlanta, GA, USA). The specific surface area, pore volume, and pore size of the samples were determined by the BET method and the BJH method. Hydrogen temperature-programmed reduction (H2-TPR) was carried out on a chemisorption analyzer (PCA-1200, Beijing, China) with a flow-type reactor. Oxygen temperature-programmed oxidation (O2-TPO) was carried out on a ChemBET Pulsar TPR/TPD chemical adsorption instrument (Quantachrome, Boynton Beach, FL, USA). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) characterization was performed on a transmission electron microscope (H-800, Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan). ICP-OES analysis was carried out on an atomic emission spectrometer (IRIS Intrepid ER/S, Thermo, Waltham, MA, USA).

3.3. Catalytic Activity Measurement

Catalytic combustion reactions were carried out in a tubular quartz fixed-bed reactor (inner diameter 19 mm, outer diameter 22 mm) at atmospheric pressure. The raw material gas was purged from the dry air, and the mixed air was arranged in the bottle. Catalyst (2 g) was placed in the constant-temperature zone of the reactor with high-temperature-resistant quartz wool. The feed flow through the reactor was set at 2 L/min, and the gas hourly space velocity (GHSV) was maintained at 30,000 h−1. The concentration of CB in the reaction feed was set at 2000–3000 mg/m3. The thermocouple, the temperature controller, and the heating electric furnace were combined to control the evaluation. The temperature of the reactor was measured using a thermocouple located at the surface of the catalyst, and the effluent gases were analyzed by an on-line gas chromatograph (GC) equipped with a flame ionization detector (FID) (6890N, Agilent, Palo Alto, CA, USA). Catalytic activity was measured from 200–450 °C and conversion data were calculated by the difference between the inlet and outlet concentrations. Conversion measurements and product profiles were taken after holding for 20 min at each test temperature.
Additionally, mass spectroscopy was used to determine the main intermediates and by-products. At different temperatures, the exhaust gas was absorbed by the absorption bottle containing the NaOH solution and then determined by ion chromatography to obtain the inorganic Cl− concentration in the exhaust gas. The concentrations of CO2 and CO in the exhaust gas were detected by a flue gas analyzer (Testo350M, Lenzkirch, Germany), and the organic by-products of the reaction were also detected by GC-MS (Trace DSQ, Thermo, Waltham, MA, USA). Intermediate product analysis was performed using electron ionization (EI) mode, 70 eV, and full scan.

4. Conclusions

A series of Pd/Pd-Ce/TiO2 catalysts were prepared by an impregnation method, and their catalytic activities were analyzed. The activity of 0.2-0.3% Pd/TiO2 catalysts was optimal. In order to reduce the costs of the catalysts, Ce was introduced into the 0.2% Pd/TiO2 catalyst. Pd/Ce catalysts with different Pd/Ce mass ratios possessed high activities for the catalytic combustion of CB, and the 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 catalyst showed the best catalytic performance. The characterization of the catalyst using BET, TEM, H2-TPR, and O2-TPD showed that the oxidation capacity was enhanced and the catalytic oxidation efficiency was improved through the addition of Ce. Additionally, the hydrogen reduction peak shifted to the low-temperature region significantly, indicating a strong interaction between the Pd and the Ce. In addition, the catalytic products were analyzed using ion chromatography and GC-MS, and the results showed that small amounts of DCB and TCB were formed during the decomposition of CB. At the same time, the effects of calcination temperature, inlet CB concentration, and space velocity on the catalytic activity were investigated. The results showed that the calcination temperature had a great influence on the activity of the catalyst, and 550 °C was the best calcination temperature. When the inlet CB concentration was from 1500–6000 mg/m3, the decomposition of CB decreased upon increasing the CB concentration. When the space velocity was from 15,000–30,000 h−1, the GHSV had little effect on the catalytic activity of CB, but the activity gap between the catalysts became more obvious upon increasing the GHSV.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, W.L.; methodology, W.L., X.D. and J.L.; validation, W.L. and X.D.; formal analysis, W.L., X.D. and S.R.; data curation, X.D., Y.Z. and S.R.; writing—original draft preparation, X.D.; writing—review and editing, W.L.; supervision, J.L.; project administration, W.L.; funding acquisition, W.L. All authors have read and agree to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by The National Key Research and Development Program of China, grant number 2016YFC0204300 and Beijing Municipal Natural Science Foundation, grant number 8162009.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Huang, H.; Dai, Q.G.; Wang, X.Y. Morphology effect of Ru/CeO2 catalysts for the catalytic combustion of chlorobenzene. Appl. Catal. B 2014, 158–159, 96–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. He, F.; Luo, J.Q.; Liu, S.T. Novel metal loaded KIT-6 catalysts and their applications in the catalytic combustion of chlorobenzene. Chem. Eng. J. 2016, 294, 362–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Dai, Q.G.; Wu, J.Y.; Deng, W.; Hu, J.S.; Wu, Q.Q.; Guo, L.M.; Sun, W.; Zhan, W.C.; Wang, X.Y. Comparative studies of P/CeO2 and Ru/CeO2 catalysts for catalytic combustion of dichloromethane: From effects of H2O to distribution of chlorinated by-products. Appl. Catal. B 2019, 249, 9–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Tommy, H.; Ovidiu, E.; Vincent, D.; Didier, D.; Keizo, N.; Sophie, H. Protecting a Pd/CB catalyst by a mesoporous silica layer. Appl. Catal. B 2019, 241, 196–204. [Google Scholar]
  5. Dai, Q.G.; Bai, S.X.; Wang, X.Y.; Lu, G.Z. Catalytic combustion of chlorobenzene over Ru-doped ceria catalysts: Mechanism study. Appl. Catal. B 2013, 129, 580–588. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Gu, Y.F.; Cai, T.; Gao, X.H.; Xia, H.Q.; Sun, W.; Zhao, J.; Dai, Q.G.; Wang, X.Y. Catalytic combustion of chlorinated aromatics over WOx/CeO2 catalysts at a low temperature. Appl. Catal. B 2019, 248, 264–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Ye, N.; Li, Y.; Yang, Z.; Zheng, J.; Zuo, S.F. Rare earth modified kaolin-based Cr2O3 catalysts for catalytic combustion of chlorobenzene. Appl. Catal. A 2019, 579, 44–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Bertinchamps, F.; Grégpire, C.; Gaigneaux, E.M. Systematic investigation of supported transition metal oxide based formulations for the catalytic oxidative elimination of (chloro)-aromatics: Part: Identification of the opimal main active phases and supports. Appl. Catal. B 2006, 66, 10–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Zhang, C.H.; Wang, C.; Zhan, W.C.; Guo, Y.L.; Guo, Y.; Lu, G.Z.; Baylet, A.; Giroir-Fendler, A. Catalytic oxidation of vinyl chloride emission over LaMnO3 and LaB0.2Mn0.8O3 (B = Co, Ni, Fe) catalysts. Appl. Catal. B 2013, 129, 509–516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Liu, X.L.; Chen, L.; Zhu, T.Y.; Ning, R.L. Catalytic oxidation of chlorobenzene over noble metals (Pd, Pt, Ru, Rh) and the distributions of polychlorinated by-products. J. Hazard. Mater. 2019, 363, 90–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Du, C.C.; Lu, S.Y.; Wang, Q.L.; Buekens, A.G.; Ni, M.J.; Debecker, D.P. A review on catalytic oxidation of chloroaromatics from flue gas. Chem. Eng. J. 2018, 334, 519–544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Yang, P.; Xue, X.M.; Meng, Z.H.; Zhou, R.X. Enhanced catalytic activity and stability of Ce doping on Cr supported HZSM-5 catalysts for deep oxidation of chlorinated volatile organic compounds. Chem. Eng. J. 2013, 234, 203–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. He, C.; Xu, B.T.; Shi, J.W.; Qiao, N.L.; Hao, Z.P.; Zhao, J.L. Catalytic destruction of chlorobenzene over mesoporous ACeOx (A = Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, or Zr) composites prepared by inorganic metal precursor spontaneous precipitation. Fuel Process. Technol. 2015, 130, 179–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Yang, P.; Yang, S.S.; Shi, Z.N.; Meng, Z.H.; Zhou, R.X. Deep oxidation of chlorinated VOCs over CeO2-based transition metal mixed oxide catalysts. Appl. Catal. B 2015, 162, 227–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Lu, Y.J.; Dai, Q.G.; Wang, X.Y. Catalytic combustion of chlorobenzene on modified LaMnO3 catalysts. Catal. Commun. 2014, 54, 114–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Liu, X.; Zeng, J.; Shi, W.; Wang, J.; Zhu, T.; Chen, Y. Catalytic oxidation of benzene over ruthenium–cobalt bimetallic catalysts and study of its mechanism. Catal. Technol. 2016, 7, 213–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Xie, S.; Deng, J.; Zang, S.; Yang, H.; Guo, G.; Arandiyan, H.; Dai, H. Au-Pd/3DOM Co3O4: Highly active and stable nanocatalysts for toluene oxidation. J. Catal. 2015, 322, 38–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Darif, B.; Ojala, S.; Pirault-Roy, L.; Bensitel, M.; Brahmi, R.; Keiski, R.L. Study on the catalytic oxidation of DMDS over Pt-Cu catalysts supported on Al2O3, AlSi20 and SiO2. Appl. Catal. B 2016, 181, 24–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Zhao, S.; Li, K.; Jiang, S.; Li, J. Pd-Co based spinel oxides derived from Pd nanoparticles immobilized on layered double hydroxides for toluene combustion. Appl. Catal. B 2016, 181, 236–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Zheng, J.; Chen, Z.; Fang, J.F.; Wang, Z.; Zuo, S.F. MCM-41 supported nano-sized CuO-CeO2 for catalytic combustion of chlorobenzene. J. Rare Earths 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Chen, Z.; Li, J.; Yang, P.; Cheng, Z.; Li, J.R.; Zuo, S.F. Ce-modified mesoporous γ-Al2O3 supported Pd-Pt nanoparticle catalysts and their structure-function relationship in complete benzene oxidation. Chem. Eng. J. 2019, 356, 255–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Dai, Q.G.; Bai, S.X.; Wang, J.W.; Li, M.; Wang, X.Y.; Lu, G.Z. The effect of TiO2 doping on catalytic performances of Ru/CeO2 catalysts during catalytic combustion of chlorobenzene. Appl. Catal. B 2013, 142–143, 222–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Silva, F.A.; Martinez, D.S.; Ruiz, J.A.C.; Mattos, L.V.; Hori, C.E.; Noronha, F.B. The effect of the use of cerium-doped alumina on the performance of Pt/CeO2/ Al2O3 and Pt/CeZrO2/ Al2O3 catalysts on the partial oxidation of methane. Appl. Catal. A 2008, 335, 145–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Wang, Y.; Deng, W.; Wang, Y.F.; Guo, L.M. A comparative study of the catalytic oxidation of chlorobenzene and toluene over Ce-Mn oxides. Mol. Catal. 2018, 459, 61–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Shahna, F.G.; Bahrami, A.; Alimohammadi, I.; Yarahmadi, R.; Jaleh, B.; Gandomi, M.; Ebrahimi, H.; Ad-Din Abedi, K. Chlorobenzene degeradation by non-thermal plasma combined with EG-TiO2/ZnO as a photocatalyst: Effect of photocatalyst on CO2 selectivity and byproducts reduction. J. Hazard. Mater. 2017, 324, 544–553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Janina, O.; Miroslaw, Z.; Katarzyna, B. Methane combustion over bimetallic Ru-Re/Al2O3 catalysts: Effect of Re and pretreatments. Appl. Catal. B 2016, 194, 22–31. [Google Scholar]
  27. Huang, H.; Gu, Y.F.; Zhao, J.; Wang, X.Y. Catalytic combustion of chlorobenzene over VOx/CeO2 catalysts. J. Catal. 2015, 326, 54–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Lao, Y.J.; Zhu, N.X.; Jiang, X.X.; Zhao, J.; Dai, Q.G.; Wang, X.Y. Effect of Ru on the activity of Co3O4 catalysts for chlorinated aromatics oxidation. Catal. Sci. Technol. 2018, 8, 4797–4811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Thommes, M.; Kaneko, K.; Neimark, A.V.; Olivier, J.P.; Rodriguez-Reinoso, F.; Rouquerol, J.; Sing, K.S.W. Physisorption of gases, with special reference to the evaluation of surface area and pore size distribution (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure Appl. Chem. 2015, 87, 1052–1069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  30. She, W.; Qi, T.; Cui, M.; Yan, P.; Ng, S.W.; Li, W.; Li, G. High Catalytic Performance of a CeO2-Supported Ni Catalyst for Hydrogenation of Nitroarenes, Fabricated via Coordination-Assisted Strategy. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2018, 10, 14698–14707. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Feng, Z.; Zhang, M.; Ren, Q.; Mo, S.; Peng, R.; Yan, D.; Fu, M.; Chen, L.; Wu, J.; Ye, D. Design of 3-dimensionally self-assembled CeO2 hierarchical nanosphere as high efficiency catalysts for toluene oxidation. Chem. Eng. J. 2019, 369, 18–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Hu, Z.; Zhou, G.; Xu, L.; Yang, J.; Zhang, B.; Xiang, X. Preparation of ternary Pd/CeO2-nitrogen doped graphene composites as recyclable catalysts for solvent-free aerobic oxidation of benzyl alcohol. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2019, 471, 852–861. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Guo, Y.Y.; Zhang, S.; Mu, W.T.; Li, X.Y.; Li, Z. Methanol total oxidation as model reaction for the effects of different Pd content on Pd-Pt/CeO2-Al2O3-TiO2 catalysts. J. Mol. Cat. A Chem. 2017, 429, 18–26. [Google Scholar]
  34. Wang, Y.; Zhao, J.; Wang, X.; Li, Z.; Liu, P. The complete oxidation of ethanol at low temperature over a novel Pd-Ce/r-Al2O3-TiO2 Catalyst. Bull. Korean Chem. Soc. 2013, 34, 2461–2465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  35. Gil, S.; Garcia-Vargas, J.; Liotta, L.; Pantaleo, G.; Ousmane, M.; Retailleau, L.; Giroir-Fendler, A. Catalytic Oxidation of Propene over Pd Catalysts Supported on CeO2, TiO2, Al2O3 and M/Al2O3 Oxides (M = Ce, Ti, Fe, Mn). Catalysts 2015, 5, 671–689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Katheria, S.; Gupta, A.; Deo, G.; Kunzru, D. Effect of calcination temperature on stability and activity of Ni/MgAl2O4 catalyst for steam reforming of methane at high pressure condition. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2016, 41, 14123–14132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Katheria, S.; Deo, G.; Kunzru, D. Rh-Ni/MgAl2O4 catalyst for steam reforming of methane: Effect of Rh doping, calcination temperature and its application on metal monoliths. Appl. Catal. A 2019, 570, 308–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Giraudon, J.M.; Nguyen, T.B.; Leclercq, G.; Siffert, S.; Lamonier, J.F.; Aboukais, A.; Vantomme, A.; Su, B.L. Chlorobenzene total oxidation over palladium supported on ZrO2, TiO2 nanostructured supports. Catal. Today 2008, 137, 379–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Feng, B.B.; Wei, Y.X.; Qiu, Y.N.; Zuo, S.F.; Ye, N. Ce-modified AlZr pillared clays supported-transition metals for catalytic combustion of chlorobenzene. J. Rare Earths 2018, 36, 1169–1174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Dai, Q.G.; Wang, X.Y.; Lu, G.Z. Low-temperature catalytic combustion of trichloroethylene over cerium oxide and catalyst deactivation. Appl. Catal. B 2008, 81, 192–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Catalysts 10 00347 g001 550
Figure 1. N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms of TiO2, 0.2% Pd/TiO2, and 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2.
Figure 1. N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms of TiO2, 0.2% Pd/TiO2, and 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2.
Catalysts 10 00347 g001
Catalysts 10 00347 g002 550
Figure 2. TEM images of 0.2% Pd/TiO2 (a) and 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 (b); HRTEM images of 0.2% Pd/TiO2 (c) and 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 (d).
Figure 2. TEM images of 0.2% Pd/TiO2 (a) and 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 (b); HRTEM images of 0.2% Pd/TiO2 (c) and 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2 (d).
Catalysts 10 00347 g002
Catalysts 10 00347 g003 550
Figure 3. H2-TPR profiles of Pd/TiO2 catalysts.
Figure 3. H2-TPR profiles of Pd/TiO2 catalysts.
Catalysts 10 00347 g003
Catalysts 10 00347 g004 550
Figure 4. H2-TPR profiles of Pd-Ce/TiO2 catalysts.
Figure 4. H2-TPR profiles of Pd-Ce/TiO2 catalysts.
Catalysts 10 00347 g004
Catalysts 10 00347 g005 550
Figure 5. O2-TPD profiles of (a) 0.2% Pd/TiO2, (b) 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2, and (c) 0.2% Pd-3% Ce/TiO2.
Figure 5. O2-TPD profiles of (a) 0.2% Pd/TiO2, (b) 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2, and (c) 0.2% Pd-3% Ce/TiO2.
Catalysts 10 00347 g005
Catalysts 10 00347 g006 550
Figure 6. Catalytic oxidation activity of CB using catalysts prepared at different calcination temperatures. CB concentration = 2500 mg/m3; GHSV = 30,000 h−1; catalyst amount = 2 g.
Figure 6. Catalytic oxidation activity of CB using catalysts prepared at different calcination temperatures. CB concentration = 2500 mg/m3; GHSV = 30,000 h−1; catalyst amount = 2 g.
Catalysts 10 00347 g006
Catalysts 10 00347 g007 550
Figure 7. CB conversion of the x% Pd/TiO2 catalysts with different Pd content. CB concentration = 2500 mg/m3; GHSV = 30,000 h−1; catalyst amount = 2 g.
Figure 7. CB conversion of the x% Pd/TiO2 catalysts with different Pd content. CB concentration = 2500 mg/m3; GHSV = 30,000 h−1; catalyst amount = 2 g.
Catalysts 10 00347 g007
Catalysts 10 00347 g008 550
Figure 8. Effect of Ce loading on the catalytic oxidation of CB of 0.2% Pd/TiO2. CB concentration = 2500 mg/m3; GHSV = 30,000 h−1; catalyst amount = 2 g.
Figure 8. Effect of Ce loading on the catalytic oxidation of CB of 0.2% Pd/TiO2. CB concentration = 2500 mg/m3; GHSV = 30,000 h−1; catalyst amount = 2 g.
Catalysts 10 00347 g008
Catalysts 10 00347 g009 550
Figure 9. Catalytic oxidation of CB at different CB concentrations.
Figure 9. Catalytic oxidation of CB at different CB concentrations.
Catalysts 10 00347 g009
Catalysts 10 00347 g010 550
Figure 10. Catalytic oxidation of CB at different GHSVs.
Figure 10. Catalytic oxidation of CB at different GHSVs.
Catalysts 10 00347 g010
Catalysts 10 00347 g011 550
Figure 11. Cl− selectivity over two catalysts. (a) 0.2% Pd /TiO2; (b) 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2
Figure 11. Cl− selectivity over two catalysts. (a) 0.2% Pd /TiO2; (b) 0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2
Catalysts 10 00347 g011
Catalysts 10 00347 g012 550
Figure 12. Organic by-products in the outlet effluents (350 °C). (a) 0.2% Pd/TiO2; (b) 0.2% Pd 0.5% Ce/TiO2.
Figure 12. Organic by-products in the outlet effluents (350 °C). (a) 0.2% Pd/TiO2; (b) 0.2% Pd 0.5% Ce/TiO2.
Catalysts 10 00347 g012
Catalysts 10 00347 g013 550
Figure 13. The COx selectivity over Pd-Ce/TiO2 catalysts. (a) 0.2% Pd /TiO2; (b) 0.2% Pd 0.5% Ce/TiO2.
Figure 13. The COx selectivity over Pd-Ce/TiO2 catalysts. (a) 0.2% Pd /TiO2; (b) 0.2% Pd 0.5% Ce/TiO2.
Catalysts 10 00347 g013
Table
Table 1. Analytical content result of the catalysts.
Table 1. Analytical content result of the catalysts.
CatalystElementCalculated Value (%)Actual Value (%)
0.2% Pd/TiO2Pd0.200.19
0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2Pd0.200.18
Ce0.500.49
Table
Table 2. BET surface area and pore structure of catalysts.
Table 2. BET surface area and pore structure of catalysts.
SampleSBET (m2/g)Pore Volume (cm3/g)Pore Size (nm)
TiO265.40.3521.6
0.2% Pd/TiO265.70.4527.2
0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO275.10.5126.9
Table
Table 3. Formation of organic by-products at different temperatures.
Table 3. Formation of organic by-products at different temperatures.
200 °C250 °C300 °C350 °C400 °C450 °C500 °C
0.2% Pd/TiO2--DCBDCBDCB/TCB--
0.2% Pd-0.5% Ce/TiO2DCBDCBDCBDCB/TCBDCB/TCB--

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Liang, W.; Du, X.; Zhu, Y.; Ren, S.; Li, J. Catalytic Oxidation of Chlorobenzene over Pd-TiO2 /Pd-Ce/TiO2 Catalysts. Catalysts 2020, 10, 347. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal10030347

AMA Style

Liang W, Du X, Zhu Y, Ren S, Li J. Catalytic Oxidation of Chlorobenzene over Pd-TiO2 /Pd-Ce/TiO2 Catalysts. Catalysts. 2020; 10(3):347. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal10030347

Chicago/Turabian Style

Liang, Wenjun, Xiaoyan Du, Yuxue Zhu, Sida Ren, and Jian Li. 2020. "Catalytic Oxidation of Chlorobenzene over Pd-TiO2 /Pd-Ce/TiO2 Catalysts" Catalysts 10, no. 3: 347. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal10030347

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop