Impact of Modern Vehicular Technologies and Emission Regulations on Improving Global Air Quality
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Emissions Regulations
2.1. Current Emission Limits
Stage | Year | CO | THC | NOx (Diesel) | NOx (Gasoline) | PM | NMHC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
g/km | g/km | g/km | g/km | g/km | g/km | ||
Tier 1 (50,000 miles/5 years) | 1991 | 2.11 | 0.25 | 0.62 | 0.25 | 0.05 * | 0.16 |
Tier 1 (100,000 miles/10 years) | 1991 | 2.61 | - | 0.78 | 0.37 | 0.06 | 0.19 |
Tier 2 | 1999 | 1.3 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.06 |
Tier 3 | 2014 | 0.62 | 0.0342 | 0.018 | 0.018 | 0.003 | 0.024 |
Stage | Category | 50,000 m/5 Years | 100,000 m/10 Years | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NMOGa g/mi | CO g/mi | NOx g/mi | PM g/mi | HCHO mg/mi | NMOGa g/mi | CO g/mi | NOx g/mi | PM g/mi | HCHO mg/mi | ||
LEV I | Tier 1 | 0.25 | 3.4 | 0.4 | 0.08 | - | 0.31 | 4.2 | 0.6 | - | - |
TLEV | 0.125 | 3.4 | 0.4 | - | 0.015 | 0.156 | 4.2 | 0.6 | 0.08 | 0.018 | |
LEV | 0.075 | 3.4 | 0.2 | - | 0.015 | 0.09 | 4.2 | 0.3 | 0.08 | 0.018 | |
ULEV | 0.04 | 1.7 | 0.2 | - | 0.008 | 0.055 | 2.1 | 0.3 | 0.04 | 0.011 | |
LEV II | LEV | 0.075 | 3.4 | 0.05 | - | 0.015 | 0.09 | 4.2 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.018 |
ULEV | 0.04 | 1.7 | 0.05 | - | 0.008 | 0.055 | 2.1 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.011 | |
SULEV | - | - | - | - | - | 0.01 | 1 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.004 |
Stage | Emission Category | NMOG + NOx | CO | HCHO | PM |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
g/mi | g/mi | mg/mi | g/mi | ||
LEV III | LEV160 | 0.16 | 4.2 | 4 | 0.01 |
ULEV125 | 0.125 | 2.1 | 4 | 0.01 | |
ULEV70 | 0.07 | 1.7 | 4 | 0.01 | |
ULEV50 | 0.05 | 1.7 | 4 | 0.01 | |
SULEV30 | 0.03 | 1 | 4 | 0.01 | |
SULEV20 | 0.02 | 1 | 4 | 0.01 | |
ULEV125 | 0.125/0.160 | 4.2 | 0.01 | ||
LEV IV | ULEV70 | 0.070/0.105 | 2.1 | ||
ULEV60 | 0.060/0.090 | 1.7 | |||
ULEV50 | 0.050/0.070 | 1.7 | |||
ULEV40 | 0.040/0.060 | 1.7 | |||
SULEV30 | 0.030/0.050 | 1 | |||
SULEV25 | 0.025/0.050 | 1 | |||
SULEV20 | 0.020/0.030 | 1 | |||
SULEV15 | 0.015/0.030 | 1 |
2.2. Comments on the Proposed Euro 7 Regulations
3. Development of ICE Technologies for Emissions Mitigation
3.1. Three-Way Catalytic Converters with Gasoline Engines
3.2. Engine Downsizing
3.2.1. Downsizing in Spark Ignition Engines
3.2.2. Downsizing in Compression Ignition Engines
3.3. Engine Start-Stop Systems
3.4. Improvements with Injection Technologies
3.5. Hybridization of the Powertrain
3.6. Particulate Filters
3.7. Advanced Combustion Regimes
4. Recommendations and Future Directions
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AES | Auxiliary Emission System |
CAFE | Corporate Average Fuel Economy |
CARB | Californian Air Resource Board |
CNG | Compressed Natural Gas |
CO | Carbon monoxide |
DPF | Diesel Particulate Filter |
EPA | Environmental Protection Agency |
EU | European Union |
FCM | Fuel Consumption Meter |
GHGs | Greenhouse gases |
HC | Hydrocarbons |
ICE | Internal Combustion Engine |
LDVs | Light Duty Vehicles |
LEV | Low Emission Vehicles |
MY | Model Year |
NEDC | New European Driving Cycle |
NHTSA | National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |
NOx | Oxides of Nitrogen |
OBFCM | On-board Fuel Consumption Monitor |
PMP | Particle Measurement Program |
PM | Particulate Matter |
PN | Particulate Number |
RDE | Real Driving Emissions |
SCR | Selective Catalytic Reduction |
SULEV | Super Ultra Low Emission Vehicle |
TWC | Three-way Catalytic converters |
ULEV | Ultra Low Emission Vehicle |
WLTC | Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Cycles |
WLTP | Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedure |
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Stage | Year | CO | HCs | HCs + NOx | NOx | PM | PN |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
g/km | g/km | g/km | g/km | g/km | #/km | ||
Positive Ignition (Gasoline) | |||||||
Euro 1 | 1992 | 2.72 | - | 0.97 | - | - | - |
Euro 2 | 1996 | 2.2 | - | 0.5 | - | - | - |
Euro 3 | 2000 | 2.3 | 0.2 | - | 0.15 | - | - |
Euro 4 | 2005 | 1 | 0.1 | - | 0.08 | - | - |
Euro 5 | 2009 | 1 | 0.1 | - | 0.06 | 0.005 | - |
Euro 6 | 2014 | 1 | 0.1 | - | 0.06 | 0.005 | 6.0 × 1011 |
Compression Ignition (Diesel) | |||||||
Euro 1 | 1992 | 2.72 | - | 0.97 | - | 0.14 | - |
Euro 2, IDI | 1996 | 1 | - | 0.7 | - | 0.08 | - |
Euro 2, DI | 1996 | 1 | - | 0.9 | - | 0.1 | - |
Euro 3 | 2000 | 0.64 | - | 0.56 | 0.5 | 0.05 | - |
Euro 4 | 2005 | 0.5 | - | 0.3 | 0.25 | 0.025 | - |
Euro 5a | 2009 | 0.5 | - | 0.23 | 0.18 | 0.005 | - |
Euro 5b | 2011 | 0.5 | - | 0.23 | 0.18 | 0.005 | 6.0 × 1011 |
Euro 6 | 2014 | 0.5 | - | 0.17 | 0.08 | 0.005 | 6.0 × 1011 |
Euro Stage | Requirements |
---|---|
Euro 6a | Excludes PMP measurement procedure for PM, PN standard and flex fuel vehicle low temperature emission testing with biofuel (this stage applicable to vehicles that meet Euro 6 standards ahead of regulatory deadlines). |
Euro 6b | Euro 6 emission requirements including PMP measurement procedure for PM; PN standards (preliminary values for PI vehicles); and flex fuel vehicle low temperature emission testing with biofuels (E10 and B7). |
Euro 6c | Euro 6b requirements plus final PN standards for PI vehicles; RDE NOx testing for monitoring only; OBD Euro 6-2; use of E10 and B7 reference fuels. |
Euro 6c-EVAP | Euro 6c requirements plus revised evaporative emissions test procedure. |
Euro 6d-TEMP | Euro 6c requirements plus RDE type approval testing against ‘temporary’ conformity factors (NOx = 2.1, PN = 1.5). |
Euro 6d-TEMP-EVAP | Euro 6d-TEMP requirements plus revised evaporative emissions test procedure. |
Euro 6d-TEMP-ISC | Euro 6d-TEMP requirements plus new ISC procedure, including RDE ISC, type 4 and type 6 tests. |
Euro 6d | RDE testing against ‘final’ conformity factors (NOx = 1.43, PM = 1.5) plus revised evaporative emissions test procedure. |
Euro 6d-ISC | Euro 6d requirements plus 48 h evaporative emissions test procedure and new ISC procedure. |
Euro 6d-ISC-FCM | Euro 6d-ISC requirements plus on-board fuel/electric energy consumption monitoring (OBFCM or just FCM) requirements for M1 and N1 ICE-only, hybrid and plug-in hybrid vehicles. End of series flexibilities by member states allowed vehicles meeting earlier sub-stages to still be sold after Euro 6d-ISC-FCM requirements became effective to offset the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the auto industry. |
Euro 6e | Euro 6d-ISC requirements plus RDE compliance considering updated PEMS error margins (NOx margin of 0.10, i.e., CF = 1.10; PN margin of 0.34, i.e., CF = 1.34); on-board FCM for category N2 vehicles. |
Euro 6e-bis | Euro 6e requirements plus increased extended ambient conditions for RDE compliance (the upper RDE temperature limit for moderate temperature changes to 35 °C from 30 °C and the upper limit for extended temperature to 38 °C from 35 °C), Auxiliary Emission System (AES) flag and updated utility factor for vehicles with off-vehicle charging using updated assumptions. |
Euro 6e-bis-FCM | Euro 6e-bis requirements plus updated utility factor for vehicles with off-vehicle charging using FCM data. |
Parameter | OEM | Hybrid | Improvement with Hybrid | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NOx (g/km) | CO2 (g/km) | NOx (g/km) | CO2 (g/km) | NOx (%) | CO2 (%) | |
WLTC | 1.34 | 143 | 1.19 | 117 | 11.6 | 18.4 |
RDE | 1.03 | 136 | 0.99 | 113 | 3.7 | 17.1 |
Urban 1 | 1.17 | 239 | 1.18 | 121 | −0.6 | 49.2 |
Urban 2 | 1.05 | 201 | 1.09 | 117 | −4.1 | 41.9 |
Urban 3 | 0.67 | 201 | 0.88 | 107 | −31.6 | 46.8 |
Combined 1 | 1.22 | 142 | 1.28 | 128 | −4.7 | 9.8 |
Combined 2 | 1.49 | 142 | 1.53 | 131 | −2.5 | 7.7 |
Combined 3 | 1.12 | 123 | 1.11 | 110 | 0.5 | 10.5 |
Combined 4 | 1.64 | 138 | 1.61 | 132 | 1.9 | 4.2 |
Highway | 2.25 | 160 | 2.18 | 159 | 3.3 | 0.4 |
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Ravi, S.S.; Osipov, S.; Turner, J.W.G. Impact of Modern Vehicular Technologies and Emission Regulations on Improving Global Air Quality. Atmosphere 2023, 14, 1164. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14071164
Ravi SS, Osipov S, Turner JWG. Impact of Modern Vehicular Technologies and Emission Regulations on Improving Global Air Quality. Atmosphere. 2023; 14(7):1164. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14071164
Chicago/Turabian StyleRavi, Sai Sudharshan, Sergey Osipov, and James W. G. Turner. 2023. "Impact of Modern Vehicular Technologies and Emission Regulations on Improving Global Air Quality" Atmosphere 14, no. 7: 1164. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14071164