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Article

Structural Control at Monte Somma and Vesuvio during the Last 5600 Years through Time and Space Distribution of Volcanic Vents

1
Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources (IGG), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), 56124 Pisa, Italy
2
Vesuvian Observatory, National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV), 80124 Naples, Italy
3
Department of Earth Science, University of Torino, 10125 Torino, Italy
4
The Italian Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA), 00155 Rome, Italy
5
Department of Earth Science, University of Pisa, 56100 Pisa, Italy
6
Parchi della Val di Cornia S.p.A., 57025 Piombino, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Geosciences 2024, 14(4), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences14040091
Submission received: 15 January 2024 / Revised: 10 March 2024 / Accepted: 11 March 2024 / Published: 22 March 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Natural Hazards)

Abstract

:
Vesuvio is likely the most if not one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world. It is an active volcano, quiescent since 1944. The activity of the Monte Somma and Vesuvio volcanic complex is commonly referred to as two central volcanic edifices, namely Monte Somma and Vesuvio. Nevertheless, the opening of numerous eruptive fissures and related vents have characterized Monte Somma and Vesuvio throughout their lives. Spatter cones, spatter ramparts, and related eruptive fissures are disseminated downslope of Vesuvio’s main cone and on the southern slopes of the volcano. Similarly, cinder cones, spatter cones, and welded spatters are distributed in the sequence cropping out on the Monte Somma cliff and on the northern slopes of Monte Somma. In this work, a total of 168 eruptive vents have been identified and characterized in a GIS environment in which field data have been merged with relevant information from historical maps and documents. These vents have been arranged into units bounded by unconformities (Unconformity Bounded Stratigraphic Units) defining the eruptive history of the volcano. Alignments of vents and eruptive fissures within each unit have been compared with regional tectonic elements and the volcano-tectonic features affecting Monte Somma and Vesuvio during the last 5600 years, thus inferring that different structural trends were active in the different stratigraphic units. In particular, we show that the N300°–320° regional, Apennine, left-lateral, strike-slip fault system, the N040°–055° Torre del Greco direct fault system, the N70° and the EW fault system, and the generally NS oriented group of local brittle elements, all analyzed here, were differently active during the investigated time span. These tectonic trends might control the position of the eruptive fissures and vents in case of future unrest of the volcano.

1. Introduction

More than 800,000 people live in the area surrounding Vesuvio, which has been deeply impacted by large effusive and explosive eruptions. The occurrence of flank eruptions during Vesuvio’s volcanic history has been largely underestimated in the previous literature e.g., [1]. Previous studies and maps—including two large-scale geological maps [2,3]; the geological and volcano-tectonic map creates by [4]; and the lineaments’ sketch maps drafted by [5,6]—all limit monogenetic vents and eruptive fissures to a restricted set. This set is commonly identified by (i) a few volcanic centers preceding the AD 79 eruption (e.g., at Camaldoli della Torre, Strocchioni, Pollena, and San Severino); (ii) the lava domes and vents produced during the post-1631 mixed activity (i.e., partly explosive and partly effusive also during the same event) and mainly located within the summit caldera area (e.g., Colle Umberto, Colle Margherita, 1906); (iii) the eruptive fractures which opened during the Vesuvio historical activity within the main cone (Gran Cono Vesuviano); (iv) the Viulo and the Fossa Monaca Middle Age lava flows as well as the 1760, 1794, and 1861 monogenetic vents.
Furthermore, the Vesuvio volcano has been so far affected by a substantial lack of attention toward the description of brittle structural elements, i.e., faults and fractures, even within geological maps, such as those of [2,3,7]. In recent times, predictive studies and models of Monte Somma and Vesuvio were produced, considering either a few tectonic features only [8,9,10,11] or volcano-tectonic characteristics only, such as caldera and flank collapses e.g., [12]. Finally, only the few monogenetic vents and eruptive fissures recognized by previous works were considered in the studies of [13,14].
Up to now, only the investigations of [15,16], first, and the work of [17] for the south-western sector of the volcano, second, showed that fast-moving lava flows were erupted in historical times from previously unnoticed monogenetic vents and fissures, which follow tectonic trends of regional and/or local importance. As a natural continuation of these studies, in the present contribution, we show how the clustering, in time and space, of flank eruptions (much more than those recognized in the previous literature) has been controlled by structural and volcano-tectonic trends and has affected the activity of the Monte Somma and Vesuvio volcanic complex during the last 5600 years. Older Monte Somma monogenetic eruptive centers have been also considered here in order to provide a more complete and detailed analysis of the structural pattern of the whole volcanic area. Our work is based on a detailed and new fieldwork focused on defining the cartography of volcanic deposits and tectonic and volcano-tectonic elements at the scale 1:5000. Our work is also supported by the census and critical analysis of historical sources. In fact, the writings and maps produced simultaneously or shortly after the eruptions contain descriptions and representations of the places in which eruptive fissures opened and/or vents were formed, which greatly helped in the accurate positioning and age attribution of a substantially larger number of eruptive vents than in the previous literature (Appendix A). Finally, our assessment of the locations of historical eruptive features at Vesuvio and the correlation of vent locations with regional structures expounds the likely style of future eruptive activity and hypothesizes its most likely location.

2. Stratigraphical Outline

The Monte Somma and Vesuvio volcanic complex is a moderate-sized stratovolcano with an altitude of 1281 m above sea level, located along the Gulf of Naples coastline, in the southernmost portion of the Campanian Plain (Figure 1). It consists of the remnants of the Monte Somma poly-phased caldera [12] surrounding the Vesuvio cone (Gran Cono Vesuviano), whose summit crater is about 500 m in diameter [18].
Recently, [17] mapped the south-western sector of the volcano and subdivided the whole Monte Somma and Vesuvio stratigraphy into Unconformity Bounded Stratigraphic Units (UBSU; Table 1), according to the groundbreaking criteria established by [19]. These units are identified and separated by different types of unconformities such as angular unconformities, erosional surfaces, disconformities (i.e., irregular or uneven erosion surfaces or indications of weathering in essentially parallel bedding), and soils when corresponding to a significant depositional hiatus in the stratigraphic succession. This approach differs from the previously used methods which divided the Monte Somma and Vesuvio activity into cycles of activity, eruptive units, or time periods between Plinian eruptions, and is nowadays recognized as an objective manner to distinguish volcanic phases on the basis of reproducible field characteristics, while also considering the geological (in the sense of non-volcanological) events that occurred inside and/or at the limit of a given volcanic area.
Accordingly, the Vesuvio activity in the last 5600 years falls within the Vesuvio Super-Synthem (Figure 2), whose base is represented by the discontinuity surface originating after the Versilian Transgression, dated at about 5600 years BP. Minor discontinuities separate the other six synthems (Table 1) grouped in the Vesuvio Super-Synthem.
The other two super-synthems that constitute the stratigraphy of this volcanic area are the Somma Super-Synthem (between 5600 years BP and 25,000 years BP) and the Proto Somma Super-Synthem (between 25,000 years BP and 39,000 years BP), which are defined by the regional erosive surfaces at the top of the Pomici di Base Plinian eruption deposits and at the top of the Campanian Ignimbrite deposits, respectively (Table 1).

3. Regional Tectonic Framework and Previous Structural and Morpho-Structural Studies

The occurrence of Campanian volcanoes is limited to the north and to the south by the regional structural trends of the 41st and 40th parallels (Figure 1). Within this area, the Monte Somma and Vesuvio volcanic complex is positioned at the intersection of two regional fault systems striking NW-SE and NE-SW e.g., [20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27]. Based on seismological data, Finetti and Morelli [20] suggested, for the first time, that the presence of the NE-SW direct, regional fault affects the Mesozoic carbonate basement of the volcano and continues in the Apennine chain (Figure 1). According to these authors, this low-angle active fault system cut the volcanic edifice in correspondence of the Torre del Greco and Torre Annunziata towns.
Other studies based on the analysis of seismic focal mechanisms, shear wave splitting, and meso-structural data indicate the occurrence of a generically indicated NW-SE trending oblique-slip fault system which intersected the Gran Cono Vesuviano and the Plio–Quaternary sediments of the Campanian Plain [5,24,28].
On the other hand, [29] showed that an additional NE trending normal fault system and a WNW-ESE directed fold system were active in the Late Qua ternary.
Focusing on the volcano, [2], in their map at the scale 1:25,000, reported the feeding fractures of Viulo-Fossa Monaca medieval lava flows (N345°), the 1760 lava flows (both N15° trending), and the ones feeding the 1794 lavas (N82° trending) and the 1861 lavas (N66° trending) only, without providing for them any specific kinematic context. The same authors, and later Sbrana et al. (2020), identified for Monte Somma the three linear elements of Lagno di Pollena, Cupa dell’Olivella (both N300° trending), and Vallone San Severino (N55° trending) only as simple fractures, with no particular association to any local or regional-scale fault system.
More recently, [9] modeled the directions of a few apical fractures cutting the main cone and feeding Vesuvio’s effusive activity, while [10,11,30] studied the geometric and kinematic features of Monte Somma dikes [13,14] reviewed the position of the onland vents recognized in the previous literature. Based on geophysical studies, [31,32,33] identified the position of offshore vents. Finally, structural elements such as faults, fractures, and geomorphological features were measured by [11]. According to these authors, the Apennine (NW-SE) and anti-Apennine (NE-SW) trends prevail in rocks older than the AD 79 eruption and at distance > 2 km from the Gran Cono Vesuviano, while NS and EW local-scale fragile elements affect the younger volcanic units.
To sum up, various approaches focusing on the description of different morphological, structural, and phenomenological aspects, mostly at the local scale, were adopted in previous works, but none of them have yet provided a complete cartographic tool synthesizing the relationships amongst vent distribution, regional tectonic trends, and regional and local-scale volcano-tectonic features.
Based on our studies [15,16,17], in the Monte Somma and Vesuvio area, five main fault systems, identified on the basis of morpho-structural and stratigraphic evidence, were active in the last 5600 years: (i) the N300°–320° regional, Apennine, left-lateral, strike-slip fault system, (ii) the N40°–55° Torre del Greco direct fault system, (iii) the N70° fault system, (iv) the EW fault system, and (v) the generally NS oriented group of local brittle elements. For instance, the combined action of both the N300°–320° and the N40°–55° fault systems were responsible for the two sector collapses related to the Plinian eruptions of the Pomici di Base and Pomici di Avellino and are deeply involved in the formation of the Monte Somma cliff [34].
Finally, our geomorphological, chrono-stratigraphic, and cartographic studies highlight the presence of several, previously unknown, Middle Age eruptive fissures and linear volcano-tectonic features with displacements of tens to hundreds of meters both on Monte Somma and Vesuvio edifices [15,16,17]. These lineaments are related both to the N300°–320° regional Apennine fault system and the N040°-055° fault system—corresponding to the “Torre del Greco fault” of [20]—and the N70° fault system [17].

4. Methods and Results

The Shaded Relief Map derived from the Digital Elevation Model (DEM), with a spatial resolution of 1 m, obtained from LiDAR data by the Regione Campania and made available by the Ministero dell’Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio e del Mare, has been adopted here. The position and direction of the structural and volcanological elements analyzed in this work, both newly identified and reported in previous studies, have been reported on this Shaded Relief Map.
Toponyms and other features (such as roads, palaces, churches, and archaeological sites), useful for ascertaining the age of volcanic activity, have been retrieved from the analysis of the 1:5000 scale topographic maps produced by Cassa del Mezzogiorno (southern Italy development agency, 1978). Toponymy is important everywhere because the place names are generally assigned on the basis of specific morphological features or for historical reasons. Toponymy is especially important in areas affected by intense volcanism, such as Monte Somma and Vesuvio, where the succession of eruptive events causes continuous changes in morphology and consequent changes in the names of geographic features. For example, the present location of the Railway Museum of Pietrarsa (which is Italian for “burned stone”), near Portici, takes its name from the effects of the 1631 eruption, whose pyroclastic flow deposits covered this promontory (Figure 2). Prior to this eruption, this locality was known by the name of Pietrabianca (which is Italian for “white stone”), due to the whitish color of the pyroclastic flow deposits of the Pompei eruption which formed this promontory in AD 79 [35,36]. As another example, some places on the Vesuvio slopes are called “Tironi” or “Monteroni”. The term “Tironi” is the late-Latin language deformation of the geometrical term “torus”, a sort of donut-shaped surface. Similarly, the term “Monteroni” is a tautology composed of the Italian term “monte” (which is mons in Latin and hill in English) and “Tironi”. Both “Tironi”and “Monteroni” have the meaning of a hill with toroidal shape [37]. Interestingly, we discovered that the hills with these names were scoria cones from which lava flows originated, as already observed by some ancient authors in some cases e.g., [38].
Many of the vents produced during historical eruptions are today buried under the most recent lava flows and pyroclastic covers. Some of these vents are described in the numerous historical accounts of the events which occurred after the 1631 eruption [39] (https://geca-cnr.ge.imati.cnr.it/pisa/vulcani/make_home_page.php?status=startdv accessed on 14 January 2024) and, in the luckiest cases, reported in ancient topographical maps. A number of these topographies are still preserved in the historic libraries of the Vesuvian Observatory, the Storia Patria Society, and the National Library in Naples, as well as in some other Italian and foreign libraries such as those of the Istituto Geografico Militare (IGM) in Florence, the Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale (ISPRA) in Rome, and the University College London. Old maps were scanned at high resolution, georeferenced with the Ground Control Points’ method, compared with each other, and then overlaid onto the adopted Shaded Relief Map, using the WGS84 UTM 33N, by means of GIS standard tools. Of particular relevance are the topographic map of [40], the geological map of [41], and the topographic surveys of the intra-caldera area performed before and after the 1906 eruption by [42,43]. The numerous vents reported in these ancient maps were field checked in this work. We anticipated that the ages attributed by the ancient authors resulted in fitting with our stratigraphic reconstruction (Figure 3). The newly discovered vents were geographically located in the field using a GPS Garmin GPSMAP64s instrument and stratigraphically positioned.
Maps of hydrographic catchments and topographic slopes have been produced by use of the GIS instrument Esri Arc-GISTM. These maps highlighting morphological patterns and anomalies—such as alignments of eruptive vents, drainage irregularities, fault lines, and coastline morphology—have been field checked and used to define kinematic indicators of structural patterns. Geometric and stratigraphic relationships between volcanic deposits of different facies and defined structural elements have been used to stratigraphically constrain the activity of structural trends.

5. Distribution of Vents in Time and Space and Relationship with Structural Trends

The distribution of Monte Somma and Vesuvio monogenetic vents is reported in Figure 3, while their main features are shown in Appendix A (In Appendix A, all names of the cited locations refer to a number in Figure 3 and coordinates are given.). In the south-western and southern sectors of Vesuvio, vent structures and fragile elements are easily recognizable because the outcropping deposits are mainly the lava flows stratigraphically overlying the tephra of the Pomici di Avellino and Pompei AD 79 explosive eruptions (Figure 2 and Table 1). In the easternmost sector of Vesuvio, faults, eruptive fractures, and vents were detected under a few-meters-thick lapilli cover produced by the Present Vesuvius Synthem explosive activity with NE and SE dispersion axes [44].
All of the 168 vents considered in this work (Appendix A), including those already known and the new ones, have been stratigraphically positioned and related to the brittle elements defined here, integrating historical data and fieldwork analysis. As expected, the greatest concentration of vents is found in the intra-caldera area, even if they are spread over the entire Monte Somma and Vesuvio volcanic complex (Figure 3). Of course, the total number of eruptive centers are underestimated in that an undefined number of vents were destroyed or buried by the subsequent volcanic activity.
For the central part of the volcano, brittle elements—defined on the basis of morphological and stratigraphical evidence—have been reported together with eruptive fissures (Figure 4) to distinguish purely structural (non-eruptive) elements from volcano-tectonic (eruptive) features. The oldest vents are positioned on the Monte Somma slopes (Case Sorrentino-N. 25, Trapolino quarry-N. 165, Pollena quarry-N. 49 and N. 50, and Vallone San Severino-N. 148, 160, and 162–166) and were active during the Proto Somma and Somma Super-Synthems (Table 1). In the case of Vallone San Severino, vents are clearly aligned along the N040°–055° direction (Figure 3).

5.1. Vents Formed during the Pre-Historic Vesuvius Synthem (4000 a BP–5600 a BP)

The Pre-Historic Vesuvius Synthem includes the Avellino eruption Sub-Synthem made of the Pomici di Avellino deposits (1995 ± 10 calBC, [47]). A tuff cone was built in the last phases of the Pomici di Avellino eruption [17]. The tuff cone is still morphologically evident and has been labeled as a central vent with the N. 57 in Figure 3. The tuff cone crater is clearly modeled by tectonic elements of the N300°–320° regional fault system (Figure 4).

5.2. Vents Formed during the Proto Vesuvius Synthem (AD 79—4000 a BP)

The Proto Vesuvius Synthem includes two sub-synthems. The Pre-Roman Sub-Synthem includes the eruptive deposits between AD 79 and the Pomici di Avellino eruptions, while the AD 79 eruption Sub-Synthem is made up of the Pompei eruption deposits (Table 1). Also belonging to the Pre-Roman Sub-Synthem, there are the Camaldoli della Torre cinder cone and the Civita di Pompei lava vent (respectively, N. 59 and N. 167 in Figure 3), both positioned in the SE sector of Vesuvio. The Camaldoli della Torre cinder cone (Figure 5b) is made up of a succession of lavas and coarse scoria beds; these deposits lay under the Pompei deposits and are underlain by the Pomici di Avellino [48]. The modest relief of the Civita di Pompei hill (54 m a.s.l.), on which the Roman city of Pompei destroyed by the AD 79 eruption was built, is a volcanic center made up of welded spatters and short lava flows [49], positioned at the SE outskirts of the Gran Cono Vesuviano (N. 167 in Figure 3). Due to the lack of the Pomici di Avellino deposits [50] in the stratigraphic sequence between the Pompei pyroclastics and the lavas of the Civita di Pompei center e.g., [51,52], this eruptive center is placed within the Proto Vesuvius Synthem (Table 1).
At the sea cliff between the Torre Bassano and the semi-submerged archaeological site of Villa Sora-Ponte di Rivieccio, there are two vents (N. 21 and N. 24 in Figure 3a) aligned AT N300°–320° and already recognized in the previous literature [41,53]. Today, these vents are practically no longer visible due to marine erosion and the construction of numerous human settlements. These deposits were photographed and described by [54] as sub-aerial aphanitic lavas and welded scoriae from a local lenticular-shaped vent, approximately 100 m long and with a maximum exposed thickness of about 4–5 m, cropping out along the sea cliff. They are covered by diluted pyroclastic density current deposits (i.e., surges) of the Pompei AD 79 eruption [54], but at places (e.g., Ponte di Rivieccio), they are described to overlay “paleosols and rests of pumice deposits”, possibly referable to the AP eruptions. The AP1 to AP6 events are small to medium-sized explosive eruptions which occurred between the Pomici di Avellino and the Pompei (AD 79) Plinian eruptions and were described for the first time by [55]. Therefore, these vents have also been attributed to the Proto Vesuvius Synthem.
A Pompei fresco reveals the presence of two vents within the depression of the Piano delle Ginestre, which represents what remains of the crater left by the last phases of the Pomici di Avellino eruption [56]. These two vents, with a generic NW-SE alignment, have been attributed to the cited AP explosive eruptions, but they are not reported in Figure 3 and Figure 4 and in Appendix A due to the uncertain location.
The main eruptive episode in this period is represented by the Pompei AD 79 eruption, whose deposits shaped volcano morphology (Figure 4). The eruption was generated from the central edifice of Cognoli di Levante (Somma Super-Synthem, Cognoli di Levante Synthem in Table 1), which was partially destroyed by the AD 79 caldera collapse [56]. The hypothetical position of the central vent of the Cognoli di Levante edifice is reported in Figure 3 (vent N. 133).

5.3. Vents Formed during the Ancient Vesuvius Synthem (AD 472–AD 79)

In the period between the main explosive eruptions of AD 79 and AD 472, a mild explosive activity took place [15,18,41,57,58,59,60]. According to [61], a main Vesuvio central cone was built in the AD 79–AD 472 interval and was beheaded at the end of the AD 472 eruption. However, in this work, it was not possible to recognize the vent of the AD 472 eruption.

5.4. Vents Formed during the Medieval Vesuvius Synthem (1139—AD 472)

During the Middle Age, volcanic activity consisted mainly of lava flows emitted from monogenetic vents and comprised also a black lapilli fallout related to the 1139 eruption [15]. These vents are few-tens-of-meters-high coalescent spatter cones located on the southern slopes of the Gran Cono Vesuviano (Figure 3).
The comparison between recent and ancient photographs and documents has highlighted how some vents of this period were completely buried or removed by recent anthropic action. This is the case of the vents of the Tironi lava field which were mapped by [17] and previously described by ([37], pages 39 and 84). This author showed that these spatter cones were aligned in an approximately NNE direction and coalesced along an eruptive fracture, and reported the occurrence of both “deep cavities” and “gas emissions”.
A total of 15 medieval vents have been positioned in this work, as reported in Figure 3. Most medieval vents are controlled by the N300°–320° regional fault system [16].

5.5. Vents Formed during the Present Vesuvius Synthem (1944–1631)

An eruptive stasis ensued after 1139 and ended with a small-scale Plinian eruption in 1631 that destroyed the Gran Cono Vesuviano present at that time. The summit was rebuilt over the following centuries by mild effusive and explosive strombolian activity that ended in 1944 [18,44,62,63]. During the time interval between 1631 and 1944—generally known as the recent period of Vesuvio activity in the literature e.g., [64]—numerous eruptive fissures opened into the Gran Cono Vesuviano. These fissures gave rise to several lava flows spreading on the southern slopes of the volcano (Figure 2). In the past, various authors attempted to position eruptive fissures and vents of this period based on historical documents [8,45,46,62,65], but these exercises were incomplete and, in some cases, misleading, without field-checking. The eruptive fissures still visible on the Gran Cono Vesuviano and those marked in the historical maps are reported in Figure 4a, whereas all data from historical chronicles are listed in Table 2 and shown in the rose diagram of Figure 4b. Unfortunately, it was not possible to consider the length of the fissures in Figure 4b, as this parameter is not reported in historical sources. The prevailing trends in this rose diagram are N300°–320°, N040°–055°, ca. NS, and ca. EW. During some eruptions (e.g., in 1737, 1822, and 1906) of this period characterized by open-conduit and semi-persistent activity, the Gran Cono Vesuviano was cut from side to side by eruptive fissures, whose directions have been recorded in ancient studies.
During the Present Vesuvius Synthem, lavas and pyroclastic products of the eruptions of this last period of activity accumulated inside the caldera formed by the Pompei AD 79 eruption and in the Piano delle Ginestre. Reported in Figure 4a is the distribution of 115 vents that were active in this interval of time both downslope of the Gran Cono Vesuviano and inside and outside the Piano delle Ginestre and the AD 79 caldera rim. These vents generally are aligned on different eruptive fissures belonging to the same trend. This is the case of the 1906 eruption [66,67], with 20 vents aligned N040°–055°, and of the 1858 eruption [68], with 24 vents positioned along the same tectonic trend on the eastern slopes of the Avellino tuff cone (Figure 4).
During the three and a half centuries following the 1631 eruption, the Gran Cono Vesuviano experienced periods of building, interrupted by beheading episodes at the end of major eruptions [69]. Of particular importance are the collapses of the upper portion of the main cone which occurred at the end of Sub-Plinian eruptions with phreatomagmatic components [44]. Traces of the last three collapses, dated 1872, 1906, and 1944, are still visible today and have been reported in Figure 4 from the [40,42,43] maps.
Only a few well-known vents have been recognized outside the summit portion of the volcano during the Present Vesuvius period of activity (Figure 3). These vents gave origin to the 1760, 1794, and 1861 lava flows [2,62] which reached the coast and affected the territories and towns of Torre del Greco and Torre Annunziata. In the 1760 eruption, 15 vents opened [70] (Figure 6) at a distance of about 4 km from the central Vesuvio crater and 4 km from the coast. The four most active of these vents [70] are still evident (Figure 5c,d). These vents, aligned on an NNW-oriented eruptive fissure (Figure 5), emitted lava flows that reached the coast [2]. During the 1794 eruption, lava flows were emitted by seven vents aligned on N070°-striking eruptive fractures (Figure 4), located at a distance of about 3 km from the central Vesuvio vent and 4 km from the coast (Figure 3). The lava flows destroyed a great portion of Torre del Greco, currently the third largest town of the Campania region. In the same period, the main crater was also active [44] and the main cone was entirely crosscut by an N70°-trending fault system, while four additional vents on the eastern portion of this fissure produced a second lava flow which ran eastwards [71,72]. During the 1861 eruption, 11 spatter cones opened to the south of the 1794 lower vents (Figure 7). Also, in this case, the vents were all aligned on a well-defined N070° eruptive fissure. During this eruption, a series of earthquakes occurred, accompanied by the opening—from the end of the eruptive fissure into the sea—of a curtain of fractures aligned N040°–055° and characterized by strong fluid emission [17,73]. Not as well-known as the previous cases is the eruptive fissure that opened during the 1872 eruption [74]. The eruptive fissure, oriented N070°, cut the Gran Cono of Vesuvio from top to bottom, starting from a pre-existing parasitic vent on the summit crater rim (Figure 8).

6. Discussion

Here below, the results described in the previous chapter are summarized and discussed considering separately each synthem or sub-synthem. The reason for this approach will be apparent at the end of this section.
To characterize all of the structural patterns that acted within the Monte Somma and Vesuvio volcanic complex in the last 5600 years, it is advisable to briefly consider also vents, eruptive fissures, and structural elements linked to the previous Somma Super-Synthem. The vents lying on Monte Somma slopes (Case Sorrentino, Trapolino quarry, Pollena quarry, and Vallone San Severino) opened on weakness elements that follow the N040°–055° regional tectonic trend. Their stratigraphic position is between the deposits of Pomici di Base and Greenish Pumices which erupted 22,000 a BP and 19,200 a BP, respectively [3]. This implies that this tectonic trend was already active during this time interval. The north-eastern portion of the Monte Somma is characterized by a cliff modeled by the N300°–320° trend and pre-existing fractures of N040°–055° direction (Figure 4). The intersection of these two tectonic trends created favorable conditions for the formation of the dykes feeding the spatters of the Punta del Nasone Subsynthem between 22,000 and 19,200 a BP (Figure 4c; Table 1). To sum up, the N040°–055° and N300°–320°regional tectonic trends were active and controlled magmatic activity during at least the Somma Super-Synthem.
The Camaldoli hill cone—dated between the Pomici di Avellino and Pompei eruptions—is located on a sector of the volcano dominated by the N300°–320° elements (N. 59 in Figure 5). The Civita di Pompei center (N. 167 in Figure 3), instead, is positioned in relation to one of the main structures shaping the volcano substrate, that is, a regional-sized normal fault, striking EW and dipping N, that was identified by gravity surveys [22] (Figure 1b).
During the Pre-Historic Vesuvius Synthem (4000 a BP–5600 a BP), the morphology (and possibly the position) of the Pomici di Avellino tuff cone (N. 57) has been modeled by the N300°–320° trend.
During the Proto Vesuvius Synthem (AD 79—4000 a BP), the N300°–320° trend controlled the location of the offshore volcanic vents (e.g., the Torre Bassano vents, N. 21 and N. 24), the formation of the Fosso della Vetrana faults, as well as the opening of the AP explosive vents.
As a matter of fact, in the literature preceding [15,17], only the Viulo and Fossa Monaca vents (No. 91 and 95, respectively, in Figure 3; Table 1) positioned on an NNE local structural trend were recognized under the Medieval Vesuvius Synthem (1139—AD 472). In contrast, we found that the N300°–320° trend combined with the N070° trend was active since after the AD 79 eruption. In fact, the medieval lava flows were channeled into the N070°-trending valleys produced by the erosion of the Pompei AD 79 eruption deposits [17] (Figure 2). Vent location confirms that even during medieval times, the main active trend was still the N300°–320°, as already found by [15,17]. The abundance of vents, mainly located inland but a few km from the coast, testifies an intense monogenetic activity unrelated with a central edifice which caused the emission of lava flows with the most primitive composition among Vesuvio products [75]. This kind of activity was not considered in predictive studies of future events that were focused on the hazard due to the explosive behavior of the volcano e.g., [76,77,78]. Our works show that this type of activity is more common at Vesuvius than previously thought.
For what concerns the vents identified in the last period of Vesuvio activity, that is, the Present Vesuvius Synthem (1944–1631), some have a location that shows a correlation with morpho-structural domains—as can be defined the Monte Somma caldera or the Gran Cono Vesuviano or the Monte Somma and Vesuvio slopes—whereas there is no correlation in other cases. In fact, relatively old vents (e.g., those associated with the 1751 eruption) opened on the AD 79 caldera floor, and relatively younger vents (e.g., 1872 and 1941) opened on the upper flanks of the main Vesuvio cone, while important vent clusters (such as the 1858 and 1906 ones) are distributed partly inside and partly outside the caldera rim. In particular, the 1906 vents are aligned along the N040°–055° regional tectonic trend rather than in a radial distribution on the main cone. This “disordered” behavior is indicative of strong control operated by deep-reaching tectonic trends on the opening location of the vents, demonstrating the nil to negligible importance of local factors, such as the increase in weight on the bottom of the caldera [79] induced by the accumulation of lava flows, or the structural barrier [45] generated in the SE portion of the volcano by the caldera fault linked to the AD 79 eruption (Figure 2).
For the Present Vesuvius Synthem, vent analysis has demonstrated that the N300°–320° Apennine tectonic trend was not so active in this period, in that few vents are positioned on structures directly relatable to this trend, such as the main 1872 fracture (Figure 8). Vents of the eruptions characterized by more than one eruptive fissure (e.g., 1858 and 1906) are frequently positioned on N040°–055° trend elements (Figure 4).
An NNW structural trend affected the easternmost sector of the Monte Somma cliff (Cognoli di Levante area) and the related portion of the caldera floor, as well as the south-eastern part of the AD 79 caldera rim, giving rise to a significant number of vents positioned outside the caldera domain in both the 19th and 20th centuries (Figure 3 and Figure 4), the best known of which are the 1760 vents, known as “Le Voccole” (Figure 5). The regional EW tectonic trend, already identified into the Civita di Pompei area, emerges also from the rose diagram of the eruptive fissures that sliced the main Vesuvio cone, in addition to the other already mentioned trends [8,9,10] recognized an alleged radial trend for the eruptive fractures that opened on the main Vesuvio cone during the three and half centuries of generally considered open-conduit activity of the Present Vesuvius Synthem. However, there is no radial trend on the main Vesuvio cone, as shown by the analysis of both the 85 eruptive fissures from [45] and the 61 eruptive fissures reported by [46] (Figure 4b). In contrast, the analysis of [8] was performed on a selection of 37 fractures only. We reiterate that the main Vesuvio cone during the post-1631 eruptive period was intersected by prevalent NS and EW fracture trends, in addition to the N300°–320° and N040°–055° trends, in partial agreement with [11].
Our positioning in time and space of the numerous monogenetic vents that punctuated the Vesuvio activity during the last 5600 years has relevant implications in forecasting the location of the eruptive fissures and vents in case of future unrest of the volcano. In fact, this study demonstrates that fissure activity was not controlled only by a set of radial eruptive fissures on the central edifice (the Gran Cono Vesuviano), as previously thought. On the contrary, the considerable number of vents and related eruptive fissures show that effusive monogenetic activity was important at Vesuvio in the past. The opening and location of the vents were governed by the main regional tectonic trends, which activated from time to time. This fact suggests that regional or local tectonic stress will probably control the opening of eruptive fissures and vents in the future. In this study, we found that five tectonic trends acted as pathway of magma rise toward the surface during the life of the volcano and that two of these tectonic trends characterized the most recent monogenetic activity. Therefore, we can speculate that in the future, magma will rise and discharge through eruptive fissures related to N040°–055° regional elements possibly associated with the N300°–320° regional fractures. The resulting emission of rapidly moving lava flows might cause huge damage in such a densely populated volcanic area and might seriously affect the management of future emergencies, adding a further element of risk to those already foreseen in the case of explosive eruptions e.g., [76,77,78].
It should be noted that a distinct structural behavior of the volcano characterized each synthem or sub-synthem here defined. In addition, the space distribution of vents and eruptive fissures, as well as in general the eruptive style of the volcano, turns out, from this study, to be different for each different synthematic unit. Thus, these differences in structural behavior and volcanic activity coincide with the time windows defined by the adopted synthematic sub-division. This strict cause–effect link between regional tectonics and volcanic activity would have never been revealed without the adoption of stratigraphic units limited by unconformities. Once more, this unprecedented result for Vesuvio highlights the effectiveness of the UBSU approach in volcanology.

7. Conclusions

In this study, 168 monogenetic vents have been positioned in space and time and related to specific structural and volcano-tectonic features. We showed that (i) the opening and location of the vents were controlled by five regional tectonic trends which activated on Monte Somma and Vesuvio in different time intervals corresponding to the distinct synthematic units adopted, and that (ii) this type of activity was more important during the life of the volcano than previously thought.
The oldest period of volcanic activity of the Monte Somma and Vesuvio volcanic complex, between 39,000 and 5600 years ago, was dominated by the joint action of N300°–320° and N040°–055° regional trends. Volcanic quiescence started 5600 years ago, during the period characterized by the Versilian Marine Transgression that marks the boundary between the Somma Super-Synthem and the Vesuvius Super-Synthem. This stasis of volcanic activity was probably associated with a stop of regional tectonics. The recovery of volcanic activity occurred about 4000 years ago (Table 1), within an evidently different tectonic framework, characterized by the joint action of the N070° and EW regional trends with the two local-scale NNW and NNE trends, and the persistence of a high degree of fragility along the N300°–320° and N040°–055° previously active regional trends.
The combined action of all of the tectonic trends mentioned above has led to the creation of a high number of eruptive fissures and related monogenetic vents, distributed across the entire surface and throughout the whole life of the volcano. However, only the N040°–055° and the N300°–320° elements controlled the most recent monogenetic activity. Therefore, we suggest that in the future, magma will rise and discharge through eruptive fissures related to these two regional tectonic trends. Furthermore, it follows that the future expected eruption might occur not only from the central volcano, as considered so far, but also from an eruptive fissure opened on its slopes, resulting in the emission of rapidly moving lava flows in densely populated areas. In other words, this study adds a new risk scenario to those already established so far in case of medium-to-long-term unrest at Vesuvio volcano.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.P., D.G. and A.P.; methodology, C.P. and A.P.; software, A.P.; investigation, C.P., D.B., S.A., A.P. and D.G.; data curation, C.P., S.A., D.B. and A.P.; writing—original draft preparation, C.P.; writing—review and editing, C.P., A.P., D.G. and S.L.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The fieldwork was supported by partial funding of the Italian Department of Civil Protection and of Vesuvius National Park. D.G. and C.P. acknowledge the support from a CSIS-CNR (2011) bilateral project. D.G. also acknowledges the contribution to this research provided by the local research funds of 2011–2016 of the University of Turin. The publication fee of this article was supported by JRU EPOS Italia funding (S.L.F.).

Data Availability Statement

Data on vents are reposted in Appendix A; .jpgw files of digitized ancient chartography can be provided upon reasonable request to the Corresponding Author.

Acknowledgments

C.P. is indebted to Joan Hernandez, Luigina Vezzoli, and Emilio Casciello for fruitful discussions during field-work and encouragement to write this paper.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Debora Brocchini is employed by the company Parchi Val di Cornia. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationship that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. Collection of the Monte Somma and Vesuvio vents information.
Table A1. Collection of the Monte Somma and Vesuvio vents information.
VentsX CoordinateY CoordinateTypologySuper-SynthemSynthemSub-SynthemName/LocalityAssigned AgeReferences
1441678.86394512546.465undersea cryptodome Gulf of Naples<19,000 y BPMilia et al., 1998 [31]
2442228.14512121.49off-shore vent Gulf of NaplesunknownFinetti & Morelli 1974 [20]
3442806.874511708.08off-shore vent Gulf of NaplesunknownFinetti & Morelli 1974 [20]
4443036.17914511263.233undersea cryptodome Gulf of Naples<19,000 y BPMilia et al., 1998 [31]
5444094.51464511355.837undersea cryptodome Gulf of Naples<19,000 y BPMilia et al., 1998 [31]
6444575.39574510142.72undersea cryptodome Gulf of Naples<19,000 y BPMilia et al., 1998 [31]
7444646.54684512941.136off-shore vent Gulf of Naples<19,000 y BPAiello et al., 2010 [32]; Paoletti et al., 2016 [33]
8445003.7354511978.051off-shore vent Gulf of Naples<19,000 y BPAiello et al., 2010 [32]; Paoletti et al., 2016 [33]
94450494514522.02undersea pit crater Gulf of NaplesunknownMilia et al., 1998 [31]
10445651.96554511358.925off-shore vent Gulf of Naples<19,000 y BPPaoletti et al., 2016 [33]
11446168.8714517267.602inferred ventVesuvioMedieval VesuviusMiglio d’OroFavorita9th−10th centuryPaolillo et al., 2016 [17]
12446423.3114524520.8spatter coneProto SommaTrapolino Cercola/Masseria San Giovanni39,000–22,000 y BPJohnston-Lavis 1884 [57], this work
13446627.75544509801.272off-shore vent Gulf of Naples<19,000 y BPAiello et al., 2010 [32]; Paoletti et al., 2016 [33]
14446928.464516303.66spatter coneVesuvioMedieval VesuviusMiglio d’OroCalastro9th−10th centuryPaolillo et al., 2016 [17]
15447240.954517461.78spatter coneVesuvioMedieval VesuviusMiglio d’OroI Tironi1006–07Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
16447432.664517463.43spatter coneVesuvioMedieval VesuviusMiglio d’OroI Tironi1006–07Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
17447610.264517160.78inferred ventVesuvioMedieval VesuviusMiglio d’OroI Tironi1006–07Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
18447662.734519361.85lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreNovelle di Scappa1858Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
19447666.214519677.42lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreNovelle di Scappa1858This work
20447696.34518866.16covered ventVesuvioMedieval VesuviusMiglio d’OroSotto i Troni/Novelle di San Vito9th−10th centuryPaolillo et al., 2016 [17]
21447788.314513637.83spatter coneVesuvioProto VesuviusPre-RomanTorre BassanoAD 79–4000 y BPDi Girolamo 1970 [54]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
22447805.15364511195.629off-shore vent Gulf of Naples<19,000 y BPAiello et al., 2010 [32]; Paoletti et al., 2016 [33]
23447834.34519030.09lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreNovelle di San Vito1858Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
24447835.734513580.94spatter coneVesuvioProto VesuviusPre-RomanTorre BassanoAD 79–4000 y BPDi Girolamo 1970 [54]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
25447839.674520295.24spatter coneProto SommaTrapolino Case Sorrentino22,000–19,200 y BPBrocchini 1999 [34]
26447958.694519418.09lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreNovelle di Scappa1858This work
27447990.164519194.7lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreNovelle di San Vito1858Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
28448138.584519206.52lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreNovelle di San Vito1858Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
29448202.954517736.81spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreMontedoro1794Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
30448209.424519052.94lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreNovelle di San Vito1858Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
31448266.514517219.6spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreMontedoro1861Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
32448308.624517240.07spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreMontedoro1861Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
33448361.94517259.82spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreMontedoro1861Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
34448365.134514499.76inferred ventVesuvioMedieval VesuviusMiglio d’OroTorre Bassano/L’Epitaffio968 BCPaolillo et al., 2016 [17]
35448393.144518889.7lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1858Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
36448399.074517976.71spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreMontedoro1794Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
37448461.574518019.46spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreMontedoro1794Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
38448490.344517313.3spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreMontedoro1861Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
39448539.774518062.81spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreMontedoro1794Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
40448555.284517340.79spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreMontedoro1861Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
41448562.094518962.98lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1858Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
42448566.834518075.91spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreMontedoro1794Rosi et al. 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
43448627.824517396.22spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreMontedoro1861Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
44448706.494517448.91spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreMontedoro1861Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
45448724.334519353lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1858Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
46448748.294519486.13lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1858This work
47448780.854517494.39spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreMontedoro1861Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
48448813.744519405.35lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1858This work
49448948.894521815.89spatter coneSommaCognoli di OttavianoCanale dell’ArenaPollena Quarry22,000–19,200 y BPRosi et al. 1986 [2]; this work
50449012.394521752.39spatter coneProto SommaTrapolino Pollena Quarry39,000–22,000 y BPRosi et al., 1986 [2]; this work
51449162.874518099.51spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1794Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
52449225.224518134.47spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1794Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
53449247.074519178.75covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1858Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
54449253.694519308.21lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1858Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
55449349.484518156.97covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1794Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
56449462.524519511.37covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1858Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
57449492.314518683.72central ventVesuvioProto VesuviusAvellinoAvellino tuff-cone/Piano delle Ginestre4000 y BPPrincipe et al., 2021 [56]
58449599.94518232.51spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1794Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
594498174514547.44cinder coneVesuvioProto VesuviusPre-RomanCamaldoli della TorreAD 79–4000 y BPRosi et al., 1986 [2]; Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
60450010.594518508.78lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1858Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
61450075.84518642.97lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1858Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
62450140.054518492.72lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1858Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
63450285.574518744.08covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestrePiano delle Ginestre1858Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
64450388.084519188.24lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1858Paolillo et al., 2016 [17]
65450398.354519277.82covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1858Allievi 1875 (Tav.4) [40]; this work
66450457.894519751.32lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreColle Umberto1895–99Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; this work
67450472.174519227.02covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1858Allievi 1875 (Tav.4) [40]; this work
68450593.614519284.17covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1858Allievi 1875 (Tav.4) [40]; this work
69450669.224518904.72covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1858Allievi 1875 (Tav.4) [40]; this work
70450719.334519968.37central ventProto SommaCognoli di Trocchia Trocchia volcano/Atrio del Cavallo39,000–22,000 y BPPrincipe et al., 2021 [56]
71450806.24519712.08covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreBocca di Countrel1820Allievi 1875 (Tav.4) [40]; this work
72450932.314516471cinder coneVesuvioMedieval VesuviusMiglio d’OroMontagnelle/Monticelli999 ADAllievi 1875 (Tav.4) [40]; Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Principe et al., 2004 [15]; this work
73451040.874516393.72covered ventVesuvioMedieval VesuviusMiglio d’OroMontagnelle/Monticelli999 ADRosi et al., 1986 [2]; Principe et al., 2004 [15]; this work
74451137.294516306.2covered ventVesuvioMedieval VesuviusMiglio d’OroMontagnelle/Monticelli999 ADRosi et al., 1986 [2]; Principe et al., 2004 [15]; this work
75451327.884519760.2spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1872This work
76451389.64519652.31spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1941This work
77451510.974518315.55covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1737Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
784515484519743.74covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1872Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
79451554.024520003.01lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreColle Margherita1891–94Fiechter 1906 [43]; Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; this work
80451606.884519075.37central ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cratere1944Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; this work
81451618.864520141.62central ventSommaCognoli di OttavianoCanale dell’ArenaArena volcano/Valle del Gigante22,000–19,200 y BPPrincipe et al., 2021 [56]
82451618.894520053.17lava cumulusVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreColle Margherita1891–94Fiechter 1906 [43]; Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; this work
83451675.044515698.51spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreLe Voccole1760Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; this work
84451692.93464520819.426welded spatterSommaCognoli di OttavianoPunta del NasonePunta del Nasone19,200–8900 y BPBrocchini 1999 [34]; this work
85451693.414515540.22spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreLe Voccole1760Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
86451694.24515465.61spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreLe Voccole1760Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
87451695.944519203.7central ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cratere1872Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]
88451710.764515347.31spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreLe Voccole1760Allievi 1875 (Tav.6) [40]; Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; this work
89451743.254519196.94central ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cratere1906Fiechter 1906 [43]
90451769.1594520865.885welded spatterSommaCognoli di OttavianoPunta del NasonePunta del Nasone19,200–8900 y BPBrocchini 1999 [34]; this work
91451853.96494513973.256spatter coneVesuvioMedieval VesuviusMiglio d’OroViulo991 ADAllievi 1875 (Tav.6) [40]; Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Principe et al., 2004 [15]; this work
92451873.244517959.91spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1906This work
93451892.744519615.6covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1834Fiechter 1904 [42]; this work
94451898.644518052.78spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1906This work
95451919.554514262.26spatter coneVesuvioMedieval VesuviusMiglio d’OroFossa Monaca991 ADAllievi 1875 (Tav.6) [40]; Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; Principe et al., 2004 [15]; this work
96451927.514519900.45covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1834Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
97451939.124518063.1spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1906Fiechter 1904 [42]; this work
98451945.654520154.49covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreAtrio del Cavallo1834Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
99451953.354519673.79covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1834Fiechter 1904 [42]
100451996.994519721.07covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1834Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
101452014.834519840.13covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreAtrio del Cavallo1834Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]
102452044.294517811.08spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1906This work,
103452065.344517788.19spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1906This work
104452073.564520040.95covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreAtrio del Cavallo1834Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
105452093.924517742.55spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1906This work
106452152.034518254.97covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1754Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
107452250.674517885.3spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1906This work
108452265.634518163.64covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1754Allievi 1875 (Tav.5 [40]); this work
109452301.674518718.28covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1754Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
110452343.024518032.8spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1906This work
111452379.014518300.03covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1754Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
112452396.874518111.78spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1906This work
113452401.14518017.59spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1906This work
114452418.664518959.87spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran ConounknownThis work
115452450.76274520781.245welded spatterSommaCognoli di OttavianoPunta del NasoneCognoli di Ottaviano19,200–8900 y BPBrocchini 1999 [34]; this work
116452453.59064513203.357inferred ventVesuvioMedieval VesuviusMiglio d’OroTorre Annunziata/Case Cirillo10th centuryPrincipe et al., 2004 [15]; this work
117452512.624518639.63covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1754Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
118452530.354518448.99covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1906This work
119452531.64519088.27covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1882Fiechter 1904 [42]; this work
120452546.034519360.15spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1903–04Fiechter 1906 [43]; this work
121452546.234518575.33spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1906This work
122452554.164518510.51spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1906This work
123452575.864518363.53spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1850Fiechter 1904 [42]; this work
124452578.244518845.72covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1754Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
125452587.634519466.57spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1882Fiechter 1904 [42]; this work
126452595.364518441.99spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreVesuvius cone1906Fiechter 1906 [43]; this work
127452632.424520567.05welded spatterSommaCognoli di OttavianoPunta del NasoneCognoli di Ottaviano19,200–8900 y BPBrocchini 1999 [34]; this work
128452635.324518471.79spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreVesuvius cone1906Fiechter 1906 [43]; this work
129452638.27014515223.323spatter coneVesuvioMedieval VesuviusMiglio d’OroMasseria AngeloniMiddle AgeThis work
130452661.364518504.78spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreVesuvius cone1906Fiechter 1906 [43]; this work
131452664.554518179.71covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1751Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
132452676.274518523.92spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreVesuvius cone1906Fiechter 1906 [43]; this work
133452687.164518944.73central ventSommaLevanteCognoli di LevanteLevante volcano/Valle dell’Inferno8900–5600 y BPPrincipe et al., 2021 [56]
134452691.184518191.19covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1751Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
135452702.344518536.73spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1906Fiechter 1906 [43]; this work
136452717.414518461.42spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreGran Cono1850Fiechter 1904 [42]; this work
137452717.844518371.32covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1751Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
138452720.614518227.26covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1751Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
139452735.34518386.14covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1751Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
140452755.944518393.02covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1751Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
141452773.194518573.99spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1906Fiechter 1906 [43]; this work
142452784.564518242.52covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1751Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
143452824.824518291.82covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1751Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
144452863.654518262.27covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1751Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
145452886.954520218.33welded spatterSommaCognoli di OttavianoPunta del NasoneCognoli di Levante19,200–8900 y BPBrocchini 1999 [34]; this work
146452917.064518263.32covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1751Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
147452943.974518287.51covered ventVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1751Allievi 1875 (Tav.5) [40]; this work
148452981.154520884.55inferred ventSommaCognoli di OttavianoCanale dell’ArenaVallone San Severino22,000–19,200 y BPJohnston-Lavis (1884 and 1891b) [57,58]; this work
149453003.364518773.89spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1906Fiechter 1906 [43]
150453026.534518759.43spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1906Fiechter 1906 [43]
151453060.164519206.1spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1882Fiechter 1904 [42]; this work
152453071.14520003.49welded spatterSommaCognoli di OttavianoPunta del NasoneCognoli di Levante19,200–8900 y BPBrocchini 1999 [34]; this work
153453117.84518094.4spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreCognoli1751Fiechter 1904 [42]; this work
154453181.874518794.41spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1937This work
155453189.374518461.51spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1883Fiechter 1904 [42]; this work
156453196.644518505.83spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1883Fiechter 1904 [42]; this work
157453258.724518547.51spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1883Fiechter 1904 [42]; this work
158453261.254519101.32spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreValle dell’Inferno1882Fiechter 1904 [42]; this work
159453262.914517745.36spatter coneVesuvioPresent VesuviusPiano delle GinestreCognoletto1906Fiechter 1906 [43]; Rosi et al., 1986 [2]; this work
160453499.734521276.14spatter coneProto SommaTrapolino Vallone San Severino39,000–22,000 y BPJohnston-Lavis (1884 and 1891b) [57,58]; Santacroce & Sbrana (2003) [3]
161453506.31334513247.015spatter coneVesuvioMedieval VesuviusMiglio d’OroMasseria Bosco del Monaco10th centuryPrincipe et al., 2004 [15]
162453669.064521456.05spatter coneProto SommaTrapolino Vallone San Severino39,000–22,000 y BPJohnston-Lavis (1884 and 1891b) [57,58]; Santacroce & Sbrana (2003) [3]
163453817.234521593.64spatter coneProto SommaTrapolino Vallone San Severino39,000–22,000 y BPJohnston-Lavis (1884 and 1891b) [57,58]; Santacroce & Sbrana (2003) [3]
164454060.654521752.39spatter coneProto SommaTrapolino Vallone San Severino39,000–22,000 y BPJohnston-Lavis (1884 and 1891b) [57,58]; Santacroce & Sbrana (2003) [3]
165454124.154521995.8spatter coneProto SommaTrapolino Trapolino quarry39,000–22,000 y BPRosi et al., 1986 [2]; this work
166454452.234521953.47spatter coneProto SommaTrapolino Vallone San Severino39,000–22,000 y BPJohnston-Lavis (1884 and 1891b) [57,58]; Santacroce & Sbrana (2003) [3]
167456304.11524511473.239cinder coneVesuvioProto VesuviusPre-RomanPompei volcano/Civita di PompeiAD 79–4000 y BPCinque & Irollo 2004 [49], this work
168458207.87624522660.428spatter coneunknownunknown StrocchioniunknownRosi et al., 1986 [2]

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Figure 1. (a,b) Location of the study area and (c) geotectonic sketch map (modified from [17]).
Figure 1. (a,b) Location of the study area and (c) geotectonic sketch map (modified from [17]).
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Figure 2. Synthematic geological map of Vesuvio from [17] and the new survey of volcanic deposits performed in this work at the scale 1:5000. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) from the Regione Campania database.
Figure 2. Synthematic geological map of Vesuvio from [17] and the new survey of volcanic deposits performed in this work at the scale 1:5000. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) from the Regione Campania database.
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Figure 3. Distribution of Monte Somma and Vesuvio vents. (A) Eruptive vents identified on the volcanic edifice and offshore. (B) Eruptive vents identified in the central portion of the volcanic edifice. Vents are numbered from left to right. Numbers refer to the description of vents given in Appendix A and colors refer to the synthematic stratigraphy in Table 1. DEM from the Regione Campania database.
Figure 3. Distribution of Monte Somma and Vesuvio vents. (A) Eruptive vents identified on the volcanic edifice and offshore. (B) Eruptive vents identified in the central portion of the volcanic edifice. Vents are numbered from left to right. Numbers refer to the description of vents given in Appendix A and colors refer to the synthematic stratigraphy in Table 1. DEM from the Regione Campania database.
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Figure 4. (a) Shaded Relief Model of the central portion of the volcano showing vents (symbols and colors as in Figure 3) with age attribution, eruptive fissures (in blue), and fragile elements (in red). DEM from Regione Campania database. (b) Rose diagram of the eruptive fissures on the Gran Cono Vesuviano based on the 85 data points from [45] (dark grey) and the 61 data points from [46] (red), which are in good agreement with each other. (c) Rose diagram of the Monte Somma cliff dykes comprising 98 elements from [30] (green color) and 68 elements from [4] (polka dots). The prevailing trends in both rose diagrams are N300°–320°, N040°–055°, ca. NS, and ca. EW.
Figure 4. (a) Shaded Relief Model of the central portion of the volcano showing vents (symbols and colors as in Figure 3) with age attribution, eruptive fissures (in blue), and fragile elements (in red). DEM from Regione Campania database. (b) Rose diagram of the eruptive fissures on the Gran Cono Vesuviano based on the 85 data points from [45] (dark grey) and the 61 data points from [46] (red), which are in good agreement with each other. (c) Rose diagram of the Monte Somma cliff dykes comprising 98 elements from [30] (green color) and 68 elements from [4] (polka dots). The prevailing trends in both rose diagrams are N300°–320°, N040°–055°, ca. NS, and ca. EW.
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Figure 5. Images of the monogenetic vents punctuating Vesuvius slopes. Vent numbers are those reported in Appendix A and Figure 3. (a) The vents of the 1906 eruption at the foot of the Gran Cono Vesuviano. (b) The Camaldoli hill cinder cone in a photograph from the south and in the slope-map generated from the Regione Campania database. The slope map highlights a number of morphological N300°–320°-trending elements in the Camaldoli area. (c) The evident cone morphology of the northernmost 1760 vent as a result of the loss of vegetation due to the fire of the summer 2017 (photo by Gino Scarpato). (d) Vents of the 1760 lava flow in (left) the [40] topographic map and (right) the slope map generated in this work, in both of which the morphology of the main 4 vents is still evident. (e) Vent and lava field of the Calastro medieval eruption, both within the present-day Torre del Greco town.
Figure 5. Images of the monogenetic vents punctuating Vesuvius slopes. Vent numbers are those reported in Appendix A and Figure 3. (a) The vents of the 1906 eruption at the foot of the Gran Cono Vesuviano. (b) The Camaldoli hill cinder cone in a photograph from the south and in the slope-map generated from the Regione Campania database. The slope map highlights a number of morphological N300°–320°-trending elements in the Camaldoli area. (c) The evident cone morphology of the northernmost 1760 vent as a result of the loss of vegetation due to the fire of the summer 2017 (photo by Gino Scarpato). (d) Vents of the 1760 lava flow in (left) the [40] topographic map and (right) the slope map generated in this work, in both of which the morphology of the main 4 vents is still evident. (e) Vent and lava field of the Calastro medieval eruption, both within the present-day Torre del Greco town.
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Figure 6. Representation of the vents of the 1760 Vesuvius eruption as given by [70].
Figure 6. Representation of the vents of the 1760 Vesuvius eruption as given by [70].
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Figure 7. Vents and eruptive fissure of the 1861 eruption. (a) Photograph of the 1861 eruptive fissure and vents taken immediately after the eruption. In the foreground, there are the vents aligned on the N070° fissure. In the center, there is the Pomici di Avellino tuff cone. In the background, there is the Gran Cono Vesuviano (photograph by [73]). (b) Map from [73] showing the fracturing pattern of the 1861 eruption, including an N040°–050° fracture set without any lava discharge and the N070° eruptive fissure (highlighted in yellow) from which a short lava flow was emitted.
Figure 7. Vents and eruptive fissure of the 1861 eruption. (a) Photograph of the 1861 eruptive fissure and vents taken immediately after the eruption. In the foreground, there are the vents aligned on the N070° fissure. In the center, there is the Pomici di Avellino tuff cone. In the background, there is the Gran Cono Vesuviano (photograph by [73]). (b) Map from [73] showing the fracturing pattern of the 1861 eruption, including an N040°–050° fracture set without any lava discharge and the N070° eruptive fissure (highlighted in yellow) from which a short lava flow was emitted.
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Figure 8. Vents and eruptive fissure of the 1872 eruption. (a) Photograph of the Gran Cono Vesuviano taken from the Vesuvio Observatory on 16 April 1872, before the start of the eruption. The yellow circle encloses a degassing parasitic cone nested on the crater rim (photo by Giorgio Sommer, 1872, printed by Giacomo Brogi, in Naples). (b) Post-eruption picture showing the eruptive fracture (dashed yellow line) oriented N320° and cutting all of the main Vesuvio cone, from the basal portion from which lava outpoured, forming an alignment of parasitic vents (photo by Giorgio Sommer, 1872, courtesy by Vincenzo Marasco).
Figure 8. Vents and eruptive fissure of the 1872 eruption. (a) Photograph of the Gran Cono Vesuviano taken from the Vesuvio Observatory on 16 April 1872, before the start of the eruption. The yellow circle encloses a degassing parasitic cone nested on the crater rim (photo by Giorgio Sommer, 1872, printed by Giacomo Brogi, in Naples). (b) Post-eruption picture showing the eruptive fracture (dashed yellow line) oriented N320° and cutting all of the main Vesuvio cone, from the basal portion from which lava outpoured, forming an alignment of parasitic vents (photo by Giorgio Sommer, 1872, courtesy by Vincenzo Marasco).
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Table 1. Monte Somma and Vesuvio synthematic stratigraphy, modified from [17]. PF: eruption from Phlegraean Field.
Table 1. Monte Somma and Vesuvio synthematic stratigraphy, modified from [17]. PF: eruption from Phlegraean Field.
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Table 2. Directions of eruptive fissures on the Gran Cono Vesuviano during the last period of activity (1631–1944). Data from [45,46], and the present study. Some eruptions show more than one eruptive fissure.
Table 2. Directions of eruptive fissures on the Gran Cono Vesuviano during the last period of activity (1631–1944). Data from [45,46], and the present study. Some eruptions show more than one eruptive fissure.
DIRECTION
NNNENEENEEESESESSESSSWSWWSWWWNWNWNNW
ERUPTION1698–99
1701
1707
1714
1717
1723
1724–26
1730
1737
1751
1754
1760
1767
1771
1779
1786
1790
1794
1804
1805
1806
1813
1817
1820
1821
1822
1833
1834
1839
1847
1850
1855
1858
1861
1868
1872
1881
1882
1885
1891
1895
1903
1905
1906
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Principe, C.; Giordano, D.; Paolillo, A.; Arrighi, S.; Brocchini, D.; La Felice, S. Structural Control at Monte Somma and Vesuvio during the Last 5600 Years through Time and Space Distribution of Volcanic Vents. Geosciences 2024, 14, 91. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences14040091

AMA Style

Principe C, Giordano D, Paolillo A, Arrighi S, Brocchini D, La Felice S. Structural Control at Monte Somma and Vesuvio during the Last 5600 Years through Time and Space Distribution of Volcanic Vents. Geosciences. 2024; 14(4):91. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences14040091

Chicago/Turabian Style

Principe, Claudia, Daniele Giordano, Annarita Paolillo, Simone Arrighi, Debora Brocchini, and Sonia La Felice. 2024. "Structural Control at Monte Somma and Vesuvio during the Last 5600 Years through Time and Space Distribution of Volcanic Vents" Geosciences 14, no. 4: 91. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences14040091

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