Buellia dispersa (Lichens) Used as Bio-Indicators for Air Pollution Transport: A Case Study within the Las Vegas Valley, Nevada (USA)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- (1)
- Identify and quantify trace element uptake by lichen biomass.
- (2)
- Identify and quantify NO3− in lichen biomass.
- (3)
- Assess patterns for metals and NO3− concentrations across the Las Vegas Valley.
- (4)
- Compare spacial distribution of pollutants with wind patterns with respect to metal and NO3− levels detected in lichen biomass across the valley.
2. Environmental Setting
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Lichen Species
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Sampling Design and Laboratory Procedures
3.2. Statistical Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Background Locations
4.2. Las Vegas Valley Locations
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Supplementary File 1Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Constituents | Detection Limit |
---|---|
As, Pb | 0.025 mg kg−1 |
Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mo, Ni, V | 0.005 mg kg−1 |
Al, Zn | 0.1 mg kg−1 |
NO3− as N | 0.1 mg kg−1 |
Sector Location | Al | As | Ba | Cd | Cr | Co | Cu | Mo | Ni | Pb | V | Zn | NO3− |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SV1 | 9802 (1.5) | 0.18 (1.1) | 104 (1.3) | 0.9 (1.9) | 8.7 (1.4) | 5.1 (1.3) | 15.8 (1.7) | 0.02 (0.4) | 8.4 (1.6) | 77 (1.5) | 14.2 (1.6) | 176 (1.8) | 20 (0.48) |
SV2 | 6330 (1.0) | 0.25 (1.5) | 87 (1.1) | 0.4 (0.8) | 5.8 (0.9) | 3.5 (0.9) | 9.6 (1.0) | 0.06 (1.2) | 5.5 (1.1) | 41 (0.8) | 6.5 (0.7) | 72 (0.7) | 36 (0.9) |
SV3 | 5811 (0.9) | 0.1 (0.1) | 78 (1.0) | 0.8 (1.7) | 5.8 (0.9) | 3.6 (0.9) | 11.6 (1.2) | 0.04 (0.8) | 5.6 (1.1) | 49 (0.9) | 7.9 (0.9) | 100 (1.0) | 29 (0.7) |
SV4 | 5268 (0.8) | 0.18 (1.1) | 61 (0.8) | 0.1 (0.2) | 5.2 (0.8) | 3.1 (0.8) | 9.7 (1.0) | 0.03 (0.6) | 5.0 (1.0) | 65 (1.2) | 6.5 (0.7) | 114 (1.2) | 32 (0.8) |
25 | 6218 (1.0) | 0.17 (1.0) | 72 (0.9) | 0.5 (1.0) | 6.8 (1.1) | 5.4 (1.3) | 5.4 (0.6) | 0.04 (0.8) | 3.94 (0.8) | 59 (1.1) | 10.0 (1.1) | 74 (0.8) | 66 (1.6) |
26 | 4676 (0.7) | 0.16 (0.9) | 61 (0.8) | 0.3 (0.6) | 5.0 (0.8) | 3.7 (0.9) | 5.2 (0.5) | 0.08 (1.6) | 2.72 (0.5) | 24 (0.5) | 8.3 (0.9) | 41 (0.4) | 69 (1.6) |
Mean | 6351 | 0.17 | 77.27 | 0.48 | 6.23 | 4.07 | 9.53 | 0.05 | 5.20 | 52.34 | 8.90 | 96.20 | 41.95 |
STDEV | 1800 | 0.05 | 17 | 0.32 | 1.37 | 0.94 | 4.00 | 0.02 | 1.91 | 19 | 2.90 | 47 | 20 |
Max | 9802 | 0 | 104 | 1 | 9 | 5 | 16 | 0 | 8 | 77 | 14 | 176 | 69 |
Min | 4676 | 0 | 61 | 0 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 0 | 3 | 24 | 6 | 41 | 20 |
Sector Location | Al | As | Ba | Cd | Cr | Co | Cu | Mo | Ni | Pb | V | Zn | NO3− |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
56 | 15,255 (2.4) | - (-) | 153 (2.0) | 8.00 (16) | 16 (2.6) | 59 (14.5) | 25 (2.6) | - (-) | 123 (23.7) | 268 (5.1) | 161 (18) | 681 (7.1) | 18 (0.4) |
57 | 5671 (0.9) | - (-) | 81 (1.0) | 0.34 (0.7) | 5.7 (0.9) | 2.6 (0.6) | 11.0 (1.2) | - (-) | 5.3 (1.0) | 21 (0.1) | 6.0 (0.7) | 35 (0.4) | 53 (1.3) |
58 | 7028 (1.1) | 1.6 (9.2) | 256 (3.3) | 0.34 (0.7) | 6.4 (1.0) | 3.0 (0.7) | 15.3 (1.6) | - (-) | 5.5 (1.1) | 27 (0.5) | 5.2 (0.6) | 40 (0.4) | 9.7 (0.2) |
59 | 71,180 (11.2) | - (-) | 3.6 (0.0) | 3.60 (7.4) | 71 (11.4) | 31 (7.6) | 14 (1.5) | - (-) | 57 (11.0) | 78 (1.5) | 87 (9.8) | 412 (4.3) | 14.9 (0.4) |
60 | 11,112 (1.7) | - (-) | 31 (0.4) | 0.30 (0.6) | 16.3 (2.6) | 6.0 (1.5) | 30 (3.1) | - (-) | 11.3 (2.2) | 41 (0.8) | 19.6 (2.2) | 59 (0.6) | - (-) |
61 | 42,714 (6.7) | - (-) | 559 (7.2) | 1.30 (2.7) | 39 (6.2) | 16.0 (3.9) | 89 (9.3) | - (-) | 31 (6.0) | 81 (1.5) | 48 (5.4) | 196 (2.0) | 50 (1.2) |
62 | 3980 (0.6) | - (-) | 67 (0.9) | 0.18 (0.4) | 4.2 (0.7) | 1.9 (0.5) | 7.1 (0.7) | - (-) | 3.7 (0.7) | 19.7 (0.4) | 4.5 (0.5) | 23 (0.2) | 2 (0.0) |
63 | 3772 (0.6) | 5.4 (31.2) | 276 (3.6) | 0.15 (0.3) | 4.1 (0.7) | 3.8 (0.9) | 5.7 (0.6) | 0.40 (8.9) | 3.8 (0.7) | 29 (0.6) | 7.0 (0.8) | 28 (0.3) | 1.2 (0.0) |
64 | 3162 (0.6) | 2.07 (11.9) | 292 (3.8) | - (-) | 4.4 (0.7) | 3.6 (0.9) | 12.0 (1.3) | 0.41 (9.1) | 4.3 (0.8) | 30 (0.6) | 7.2 (0.8) | 38 (0.4) | 0.45 (0.0) |
65 | 4422 (0.7) | - (-) | 236 (3.1) | - (-) | 6.0 (1.0) | 4.6 (1.1) | 3.6 (0.4) | 0.52 (11) | 4.8 (0.9) | 42 (0.8) | 9.8 (1.1) | 32 (0.3) | 0.78 (0.0) |
66 | 4492 (0.7) | 6.2 (35.8) | 183 (2.4) | - (-) | 5.8 (0.9) | 4.4 (1.1) | 4.1 (0.4) | 0.53 (11) | 4.4 (0.9) | 88 (1.7) | 9.7 (1.1) | 36 (0.4) | 1.35 (0.0) |
67 | 4076 (0.6) | - (-) | 212 (2.7) | - (-) | 4.3 (0.7) | 4.3 (1.0) | - (-) | - (-) | 5.0 (1.0) | 56 (1.1) | 8.9 (1.0) | 31 (0.3) | 0.57 (0.0) |
68 | 4061 (0.6) | 11.2 (64.5) | 151 (2.0) | 0.13 (0.3) | 18.9 (3.0) | 6.4 (1.6) | 11.9 (1.3) | 1.02 (22) | 8.0 (1.5) | 33 (0.6) | 14.2 (1.6) | 51 (0.5) | 0.54 (0.0) |
Mean | 13,917 | 2.0 | 192 | 1.1 | 16 | 11 | 18 | 0.22 | 21 | 63 | 30 | 128 | 12 |
STDEV | 20,256 | 3.5 | 145 | 2.3 | 19 | 16 | 23 | 0.33 | 34 | 66 | 46 | 199 | 19 |
Max | 71,180 | 11.2 | 559 | 8 | 71 | 59 | 89 | 1.02 | 123 | 268 | 161 | 681 | 53 |
Min | 3162 | - | 3.6 | - | 4.1 | 1.9 | - | 0.00 | 3.7 | 19.7 | 6.0 | 28 | - |
Sector Location | Al | As | Ba | Cd | Cr | Co | Cu | Mo | Ni | Pb | V | Zn | NO3− |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 5542 (0.9) | 0.19 (1.1) | 103 (1.3) | 0.38 (0.8) | 7.7 (1.2) | 3.9 (1.9) | 11.2 (1.2) | 0.26 (5.7) | 7.7 (1.5) | 63 (1.2) | 6.7 (0.7) | 42 (0.4) | 42 (1.0) |
2 | 5205 (0.8) | 1.4 (7.8) | 137 (1.8) | 0.25 (0.5) | 7.7 (1.2) | 3.5 (0.8) | 12.5 (1.3) | 0.35 (7.8) | 6.5 (1.3) | 46 (0.9) | 11.3 (1.3) | 51 (0.5) | 33 (0.8) |
3 | 6430 (1.0) | - (-) | 142 (1.8) | 0.40 (0.8) | 6.6 (1.1) | 4.3 (1.0) | 14.1 (1.5) | - (-) | 7.2 (1.4) | 50 (0.9) | 10.6 (1.2) | 46 (0.5) | 38 (0.9) |
4 | 6898 (1.1) | - (-) | 174 (2.3) | 0.22 (0.5) | 8.2 (1.3) | 5.2 (1.3) | 8.5 (0.9) | - (-) | 6.4 (1.2) | 54 (1.0) | 9.9 (1.1) | 55 (0.6) | 28 (0.7) |
5 | 5132 (0.8) | 2.2 (13) | 143 (1.8) | 0.36 (0.8) | 4.7 (0.8) | 3.9 (1.0) | 16.6 (1.7) | - (-) | 5.4 (1.0) | 37 (0.7) | 7.4 (0.8) | 44 (0.5) | 30 (0.7) |
6 | 4791 (0.8) | - (-) | 126 (1.6) | 0.09 (0.2) | 5.8 (0.9) | 3.7 (0.9) | 10.1 (1.1) | - (-) | 4.6 (0.9) | 42 (0.8) | 0.3 (1.0) | 39 (0.4) | 53 (1.3) |
7 | 7300 (1.1) | - (-) | 144 (1.9) | - (-) | 8.6 (1.4) | 5.4 (1.3) | 10.7 (1.1) | - (-) | 7.2 (1.4) | 51 (1.0) | 11.6 (1.3) | 40 (0.4) | 63 (1.5) |
8 | 4567 (0.7) | - (-) | 120 (1.5) | 0.28 (0.6) | 5.3 (0.8) | 3.8 (0.9) | 9.7 (1.0) | - (-) | 5.0 (1.0) | 49 (0.9) | 7.5 (0.8) | 39 (0.4) | - (-) |
9 | 7390 (1.2) | - (-) | 164 (2.1) | 0.11 (0.2) | 9.0 (1.5) | 6.2 (1.5) | 11.3 (1.2) | - (-) | 8.5 (1.6) | 52 (1.0) | 13.2 (1.5) | 55 (0.6) | 74 (1.8) |
10 | 1684 (0.3) | - (-) | 106 (1.4) | - (-) | 3.8 (0.6) | 1.8 (0.4) | 5.7 (0.6) | 0.46 (10.1) | 0.6 (0.1) | 36 (0.7) | 5.9 (0.7) | 65 (0.7) | 14 (0.3) |
11 | 2079 (0.3) | 1.1 (6.1) | 86 (1.1) | 0.20 (0.4) | 3.8 (0.6) | 2.4 (0.6) | 10.4 (1.1) | 0.66 (14.7) | 1.9 (0.4) | 73 (1.4) | 6.5 (0.7) | 60 (0.6) | 75 (1.8) |
12 | 3770 (0.6) | 0.9 (5.1) | 291 (3.8) | - (-) | 6.5 (1.1) | 4.4 (1.1) | 15.2 (1.6) | - (-) | 2.5 (0.5) | 63 (1.2) | 12.6 (1.4) | 85 (0.9) | 39 (0.9) |
13 | 2048 (0.3) | 2.1 (12) | 80 (1.0) | 0.10 (0.2) | 3.6 (0.6) | 3.1 (0.8) | 5.6 (0.6) | - (-) | 1.8 (0.3) | 43 (0.8) | 7.6 (0.9) | 51 (0.5) | 102 (2.4) |
14 | 52180.8 | - (-) | 130 (1.7) | - (-) | 6.9 (1.1) | 10.6 (2.6) | 5.5 (0.6) | - (-) | 15.8 (3.0) | 35 (0.7) | 12.3 (1.4) | 53 (0.6) | 26 (0.6) |
15 | 2394 (0.4) | 0.7 (3.8) | 50 (0.6) | 0.06 (0.1) | 1.8 (0.3) | 2.4 (0.6) | 8.8 (0.9) | 0.06 (1.3) | 2.9 (0.6) | 11 (0.2) | 4.1 (0.5) | 15 (0.2) | 129 (3.1) |
16 | 5188 (0.8) | - (-) | 354 (4.6) | - (-) | 7.0 (1.1) | 8.1 (2.0) | 6.8 (0.7) | 0.19 (4.2) | 3.8 (0.7) | 10 (0.2) | 15.9 (1.8) | 69 (0.7) | 60 (1.4) |
17 | 4360 (0.7) | - (-) | 93 (1.2) | 0.14 (0.3) | 5.7 (0.9) | 3.6 (0.9) | 8.9 (0.9) | 0.21 (4.7) | 4.3 (0.8) | 31 (0.6) | 8.8 (1.0) | 42 (0.4) | 51 (1.2) |
18 | 4694 (0.7) | - (-) | 97 (1.3) | - (-) | 6.3 (1.0) | 3.8 (0.9) | 11.6 (1.2) | 0.45 (9.9) | 5.0 (1.0) | 40 (0.8) | 10.6 (1.2) | 49 (0.5) | 53 (1.3) |
19 | 6752 (1.1) | - (-) | 113 (1.5) | 0.26 (0.5) | 8.8 (1.4) | 5.1 (1.3) | 17.3 (1.8) | - (-) | 7.0 (1.3) | 46 (0.9) | 11.1 (1.2) | 56 (0.6) | - (-) |
20 | 4054 (0.6) | - (-) | 78 (1.0) | 0.11 (0.2) | 5.1 (0.8) | 2.8 (0.7) | 6.8 (0.7) | - (-) | 4.0 (0.8) | 17 (0.3) | 6.3 (0.7) | 27 (0.3) | 68 (1.6) |
21 | 3361 (0.5) | - (-) | 71 (0.9) | - (-) | 5.4 (0.9) | 3.2 (0.8) | - (-) | 0.32 (7.1) | 1.6 (0.3) | 33 (0.6) | 7.6 (0.9) | 42 (0.4) | 79 (1.9) |
Mean | 4708 | 0.4 | 133 | 0.15 | 6.1 | 4.3 | 9.9 | 0.15 | 5.2 | 42 | 8.9 | 49 | 50 |
STDEV | 1721 | 0.7 | 71 | 0.14 | 1.9 | 2.0 | 4.1 | 0.20 | 3.3 | 16 | 3.5 | 15 | 32 |
Max | 7390 | 2.2 | 354 | 0.40 | 9.0 | 10.6 | 17.3 | 0.66 | 15.8 | 73 | 15.9 | 85 | 129 |
Min | 1684 | - | 50 | - | 1.8 | 1.8 | - | - | 0.6 | 10 | 0.3 | 15 | - |
Sector Location | Al | As | Ba | Cd | Cr | Co | Cu | Mo | Ni | Pb | V | Zn | NO3− |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
22 | 4579 (0.7) | 3.06 (17) | 87 (1.1) | - (-) | 6.3 (1.0) | 4.5 (1.1) | - (-) | - (-) | 1.98 (0.4) | 26 (0.5) | 11.2 (1.3) | 51 (0.5) | 56 (1.3) |
23 | 4232 (0.7) | - (-) | 88 (1.1) | 0.12 (0.3) | 5.9 (0.9) | 3.6 (0.9) | 2.8 (0.3) | 0.25 (5.5) | 3.44 (0.7) | 32 (0.6) | 10.3 (1.2) | 46 (0.5) | 62 (1.5) |
24 | 6371 (1.0) | - (-) | 103 (1.3) | - (-) | 10.4 (1.7) | 5.3 (1.3) | 13.3 (1.4) | 0.34 (7.6) | 5.47 (1.1) | 65 (1.2) | 13.2 (1.5) | 78 (0.8) | 139 (3.3) |
27 | 4977 (0.8) | - (-) | 92 (1.2) | - (-) | 6.7 (1.1) | 4.8 (1.2) | - (-) | - (-) | 1.19 (0.2) | 35 (0.7) | 14.8 (1.7) | 55 (0.6) | 122 (2.9) |
28 | 2908 (0.5) | - (-) | 62 (0.8) | - (-) | 4.9 (0.8) | 3.2 (0.8) | - (-) | 0.17 (3.8) | 0.17 (0.0) | 26 (0.5) | 9.3 (1.0) | 43 (0.4) | - (-) |
29 | 5015 (0.8) | 2.09 (12) | 91 (1.2) | - (-) | 8.5 (1.4) | 4.2 (1.0) | 1.6 (0.2) | - (-) | 3.54 (0.7) | 51 (1.0) | 11.8 (1.3) | 66 (0.7) | - (-) |
30 | 4570 (0.7) | - (-) | 85 (1.1) | - (-) | 6.4 (1.0) | 3.7 (0.9) | 4.2 (0.4) | 0.24 (5.2) | 3.89 (0.7) | 42 (0.8) | 10.5 (1.2) | 56 (0.6) | 156 (3.7) |
31 | 4549 (0.7) | - (-) | 79 (1.0) | - (-) | 6.4 (1.0) | 4.0 (1.0) | - (-) | - (-) | 3.22 (0.6) | 39 (0.7) | 12.11.4 | 52 (0.5) | 112 (2.7) |
32 | 3974 (0.7) | - (-) | 104 (1.4) | - (-) | 6.3 (1.0) | 4.5 (1.1) | - (-) | - (-) | 1.35 (0.3) | 41 (0.8) | 12.6 (1.4) | 49 (0.5) | 87 (2.1) |
33 | 5225 (0.8) | - (-) | 87 (1.1) | - (-) | 7.6 (1.2) | 3.9 (1.0) | 3.5 (0.4) | 0.22 (4.8) | 4.99 (1.0) | 49 (0.9) | 11.3 (1.3) | 117 (1.2) | 57 (1.4) |
34 | 3640 (0.6) | - (-) | 51 (0.7) | 0.48 (1.0) | 6.4 (1.0) | 3.0 (0.7) | 2.4 (0.3) | 0.36 (8.1) | 3.87 (0.7) | 34 (0.7) | 9.8 (1.1) | 71 (0.7) | 92 (2.2) |
35 | 4332 (0.7) | - (-) | 81 (1.0) | - (-) | 5.5 (0.9) | 3.6 (0.9) | - (-) | 0.19 (4.2) | 3.06 (0.6) | 31 (0.6) | 12.0 (1/4) | 40 (0.4) | 151 (3.6) |
36 | 4796 (0.8) | - (-) | 92 (1.2) | - (-) | 6.3 (1.0) | 4.7 (1.1) | 5.5 (0.6) | 0.28 (6.1) | 1.93 (0.4) | 58 (1.1) | 9.6 (1.1) | 57 (0.6) | 36 (0.9) |
37 | 5062 (0.8) | - (-) | 84 (1.1) | 0.06 (0.1) | 6.0 (1.0) | 3.9 (1.0) | 14.5 (1.5) | - (-) | 5.06 (1.0) | 36 (0.7) | 7.6 (0.9) | 58 (0.6) | 78 (1.9) |
38 | 5808 (0.9) | - (-) | 92 (1.2) | - (-) | 6.7 (1.1) | 4.6 (1.1) | 6.7 (0.7) | - (-) | 4.20 (0.8) | 25 (0.5) | 8.1 (0.9) | 52 (0.5) | 85 (2.0) |
Mean | 4669 | 0.3 | 85 | 0.04 | 6.7 | 4.1 | 3.6 | 0.14 | 3.16 | 39 | 11 | 59 | 82 |
STDEV | 840 | 0.9 | 14 | 0.12 | 1.3 | 0.63 | 4.7 | 0.14 | 1.55 | 12 | 1.9 | 19 | 49 |
Max | 6371 | 3.06 | 104 | 0.48 | 10.4 | 5.3 | 14.5 | 0.36 | 5.47 | 65 | 14.8 | 117 | 156 |
Min | 2908 | - | 51 | - | 4.9 | 3.0 | - | - | 0.17 | 25 | 7.6 | 40 | - |
Sector Location | Al | As | Ba | Cd | Cr | Co | Cu | Mo | Ni | Pb | V | Zn | NO3- |
Sector Location | Al | As | Ba | Cd | Cr | Co | Cu | Mo | Ni | Pb | V | Zn | NO3− |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
39 | 4178 (0.7) | - (-) | 67 (0.9) | - (-) | 5.0 (0.8) | 3.3 (0.8) | - (-) | 0.50 (11.2) | 0.76 (0.1) | 34 (0.7) | - (-) | 29 (0.3) | 65 (1.5) |
40 | 4916 (0.8) | - (-) | 68 (0.9) | - (-) | 5.7 (0.9) | 4.0 (1.0) | - (-) | - (-) | 2.73 (0.5) | 46 (0.9) | - (-) | 44 (0.5) | 182 (4.3) |
41 | 1459 (0.2) | - (-) | 49 (0.6) | - (-) | 1.9 (0.3) | 1.5 (0.4) | - (-) | - (-) | - (-) | 6.67 (0.1) | - (-) | 10.2 (0.1) | 101 (2.4) |
42 | 1123 (0.2) | - (-) | 22 (0.3) | - (-) | 2.4 (0.4) | 2 (0.5) | - (-) | - (-) | - (-) | 9.12 (0.2) | - (-) | 5.8 (0.1) | 251 (6.0) |
43 | 4077 (0.6) | - (-) | 92 (1.2) | - (-) | 5.3 (0.9) | 4.3 (1.1) | - (-) | - (-) | 1.3 (0.3) | 43 (0.8) | 6.3 (0.7) | 41 (0.4) | 82 (2.0) |
44 | 3908 (0.6) | - (-) | 64 (0.8) | - (-) | 6.5 (1.0) | 3.5 (0.9) | - (-) | - (-) | - (-) | 37 (0.7) | 19.4 (2.2) | 35 (0.4) | 339 (8.1) |
45 | 3067 (0.5) | - (-) | 59 (0.8) | - (-) | 4.6 (0.7) | 2.8 (0.7) | - (-) | 0.20 (4.4) | 1.8 (0.3) | 20 (0.4) | 3.0 (0.3) | 40 (0.4) | 304 (7.2) |
46 | 2184 (0.3) | 1.9 (11) | 56 (0.7) | - (-) | 3.5 (0.6) | 1.7 (0.4) | - (-) | - (-) | 0.2 (0.0) | 24 (0.5) | 7.5 (0.8) | 40 (0.4) | 78 (1.9) |
47 | 3177 (0.5) | - (-) | 44 (0.6) | - (-) | 4.4 (0.7) | 2.2 (0.5) | 1.6 (0.2) | 0.70 (16) | 2.9 (0.6) | 23 (0.4) | 9.3 (1.0) | 30 (0.3) | 56 (1.3) |
48 | 4592 (0.7) | - (-) | 78 (1.0) | 0.23 (0.5) | 5.6 (0.9) | 3.0 (0.7) | 6.4 (0.7) | - (-) | 4.4 (0.8) | 19.5 (0.4) | 6.3 (0.7) | 31 (0.3) | 564 (13.4) |
49 | 3380 (0.5) | - (-) | 77 (1.0) | - (-) | 6.2 (1.0) | 2.6 (0.6) | - (-) | - (-) | 1.3 (0.3) | 42 (0.8) | 9.2 (1.0) | 31 (0.3) | 25 (0.6) |
50 | 4352 (0.7) | - (-) | 77 (1.0) | 0.40 (0.8) | 5.4 (0.9) | 2.7 (0.7) | 9.4 (1.0) | - (-) | 5.0 (1.0) | 16.7 (0.3) | 6.7 (0.8) | 30 (0.3) | 426 (10.2) |
51 | 1714 (0.3) | - (-) | 114 (1.5) | - (-) | 3.0 (0.5) | 3.0 (0.7) | - (-) | - (-) | - (-) | 35 (0.7) | 16.7 (1.9) | 27 (0.3) | 351 (8.4) |
52 | 4368 (0.7) | - (-) | 84 (1.1) | - (-) | 6.4 (1.0) | 3.7 (0.9) | - (-) | - (-) | 2.4 (0.5) | 24 (0.5) | 8.1 (0.9) | 36 (0.4) | 23 (0.5) |
53 | 5195 (0.8) | - (-) | 78 (1.0) | 0.20 (0.4) | 5.2 (0.8) | 2.2 (0.5) | 9.7 (1.0) | - (-) | 3.8 (0.7) | 8.9 (0.2) | 6.5 (0.7) | 28 (0.3) | 14 (0.3) |
54 | 5589 (0.9) | - (-) | 95 (1.2) | 0.30 (0.6) | 6.1 (1.0) | 3.0 (0.7) | 11.4 (1.2) | - (-) | 5.4 (1.0) | 15.3 (0.3) | 6.6 (0.7) | 35 (0.4) | 83 (2.0) |
55 | 6045 (1.0) | - (-) | 119 (1.5) | 1.40 (2.9) | 8.6 (1.4) | 5.7 (1.4) | 8.3 (0.9) | - (-) | 4.8 (0.9) | 139 (2.7) | 19 (2.1) | 277 (2.9) | 204 (4.9) |
Mean | 3725 | 0.11 | 73 | 0.15 | 5.0 | 3.0 | 2.8 | 0.082 | 2.2 | 32 | 7.8 | 45 | 185 |
STDEV | 1448 | 0.46 | 24 | 0.35 | 1.7 | 1.0 | 4.3 | 0.20 | 2.0 | 30 | 5.9 | 60 | 163 |
Max | 6045 | 1.9 | 119 | 1.4 | 8.6 | 5.7 | 11.4 | 0.70 | 5.4 | 139 | 19.4 | 277 | 564 |
Min | 1123 | - | 22 | - | 1.9 | 1.5 | - | - | - | 6.67 | - | 5.8 | 14 |
Function | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | |
Elevation(m) | 0.717* | 0.142 | 0.070 | −0.097 |
Al | −0.236 | 0.593* | 0.304 | −0.188 |
Cu | −0.217 | 0.572* | 0.038 | 0.91 |
Cr | −0.256 | 0.537* | 0.247 | −0.248 |
NO3− | 0.024 | −0.383 | 0.561* | 0.142 |
Mo | −0.046 | −0.122 | −0.405* | 0.037 |
Ba | −0.209 | 0.205 | −0.373* | 0.178 |
As | −0.066 | 0.004 | −0.333* | 0.124 |
Cd | −0.044 | 0.145 | 0.287* | 0.162 |
Zn | −0.010 | 0.182 | 0.256* | −0.005 |
V | −0.109 | 0.136 | 0.240* | −0.033 |
Ni | −0.107 | 0.159 | 0.200* | 0.089 |
Co | −0.100 | 0.132 | 0.182* | 0.023 |
Pb | 0.021 | 0.070 | 0.034 | 0.095* |
Location/data | Cu/Pb | Cr/Pb | Co/Cu |
---|---|---|---|
Sector means | 0.291/0.387/0.476/0.147 | 0.174/0.286/0.225/0.178 | 0.550/0.684/0.740/1.005 |
STDEV | 0.174/0.309/0.404/0.120 | 0.127/0.247/0.129/0.037 | 0.438/0.594/0.767/0.725 |
% ± 1σ | 67/62/24/20 | 67/77/76/93 | 90/92/47/53 |
© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Sims, D.B.; Hudson, A.C.; Park, J.H.; Hodge, V.; Porter, H.; Spaulding, W.G. Buellia dispersa (Lichens) Used as Bio-Indicators for Air Pollution Transport: A Case Study within the Las Vegas Valley, Nevada (USA). Environments 2017, 4, 94. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments4040094
Sims DB, Hudson AC, Park JH, Hodge V, Porter H, Spaulding WG. Buellia dispersa (Lichens) Used as Bio-Indicators for Air Pollution Transport: A Case Study within the Las Vegas Valley, Nevada (USA). Environments. 2017; 4(4):94. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments4040094
Chicago/Turabian StyleSims, Douglas B., Amanda C. Hudson, Ji Hye Park, Vernon Hodge, Heidi Porter, and W. Geoffrey Spaulding. 2017. "Buellia dispersa (Lichens) Used as Bio-Indicators for Air Pollution Transport: A Case Study within the Las Vegas Valley, Nevada (USA)" Environments 4, no. 4: 94. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments4040094