Next Article in Journal
A Mathematical Model of the Plane-Parallel Movement of an Asymmetric Machine-and-Tractor Aggregate
Previous Article in Journal
Impact of Dietary Supra-Nutritional Levels of Vitamins A and E on Fertility Traits of Broiler Breeder Hens in Late Production Phase
Previous Article in Special Issue
The Unexplored Potential of Edible Flowers Lipids
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Agriculture
Volume 8
Issue 10
10.3390/agriculture8100150
agriculture-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

The Potential of Some Moringa Species for Seed Oil Production †

by
Silia Boukandoul
1,2,
Susana Casal
2,* and
Farid Zaidi
1
1
Département des Sciences Alimentaires, Faculté des Sciences de la Nature et de la Vie, Université de Bejaia, Route Targa Ouzemour, Bejaia 06000, Algeria
2
LAQV@REQUIMTE/Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Porto University, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
This article is dedicated to the memory of Professor Rachida Zaidi-Yahiaoui, for her inspiration and encouragement on Moringa oleifera Lam. studies.
†
This article is dedicated to the memory of Professor Rachida Zaidi-Yahiaoui, for her inspiration and encouragement on Moringa oleifera Lam. studies.
Agriculture 2018, 8(10), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8100150
Submission received: 31 July 2018 / Revised: 21 September 2018 / Accepted: 28 September 2018 / Published: 30 September 2018
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil Production)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
There is an increasingly demand for alternative vegetable oils sources. Over the last decade there has been fast growing interest in Moringa oleifera Lam., particularly due to its high seed oil yield (30–40%), while other Moringa species with similar potentialities are reducing their representativeness worldwide. This review reinforces the interesting composition of Moringa oil, rich in oleic acid and highly resistant to oxidation, for industrial purposes, and shows that other Moringa species could also be exploited for similar purposes. In particular, Moringa peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori has an interesting oil yield and higher resistance to pest and diseases, and Moringa stenopetala (Bak. f.) Cuf. is highlighted for its increased resistance to adverse climate conditions, of potential interest in a climate change scenario. Exploring adapted varieties or producing interspecies hybrids can create added value to these less explored species, while renewing attention to endangered species. Moringa seed oil can be extracted by conventional methods or using physical methods (pressing), creating diverse products from a compositional perspective, able to serve both the biodiesel and food industries.

1. Introduction

The Moringa genus comprises fast-growing plants, widely distributed along tropical and subtropical climates [1]. Among its 13 species, Moringa oleifera Lam. is the one receiving more attention worldwide, being among the most economically important tree crops, especially in developing countries. Several factors contribute for this widespread interest, including its easy cultivation in a variable range of climatic and geographical conditions, its high production yields, the multipurpose uses of all its vegetative structures (leaves, flowers, immature pods, seeds, etc.), with nutritional relevance for humans and animals, a traditional use for medicinal purposes, in agroforestry systems and for water purification [2,3,4,5,6]. Its seeds are rich in oil, used for cosmetic and perfume production since ancient times, as lubricants in machinery and, more recently, for biodiesel production [7,8,9]. M. oleifera oil has oleic acid as its main fatty acid, similarly to olive oil, with a great potential to become a promising commercial source of edible oil for the food industry [7]. Moringa peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori has also an important position, especially in the Arab peninsula and northern Africa [10], but is essentially a wild species and its commercial value has not been considered widely [11]. Moringa stenopetala (Bak. f.) Cuf. has also not received much attention until now despite being recognized as one of the most drought-resistant species [12], while many other species are in danger of extinction, including M. arborea Verdc., M. Borziana Mattei, M. longituba Engl., M. rivae Chiov., and M. ruspoliana Engl. [13].
The need for a comparison of all Moringa species, aiming to ascertain their potential as oils sources for food and biodiesel purposes, has motivated us to bridge the information available in this field. In this regard, the objective of the present review is to report similarities and differences between Moringa species in general, focusing the ones with higher economic feasibility, particularly for oil production. Therefore, after a brief revision on geographical distribution, morphological characteristics and cultivation methods, available data on Moringa species seed yields, oil content and composition are compared, aiming to highlight for the feasibility of using other species than M. oleifera for oil production purposes.

2. Origin, Geographical Distribution and Diversity of Moringa Species

Moringa, the sole genus of the Moringa ceae family, order Brassicales, includes 13 known species [1]. All species are indigenous to Africa and Asia, as detailed in Table 1, despite being now cultivated in all continents [1,6,7,13].
The most economically valuable species, M. oleifera, is native to the dry tropical areas in north-western India, in the south of the Himalayas, and is now the most widely cultivated, spread and naturalized Moringa species around the world [6,14]. It has been introduced and adapted in more than 60 different countries worldwide, including the Philippines, Mexico, Caribbean Islands, Argentina, Brazil, Algeria, among many others [15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22]. Still, M. oleifera represents only 7% of the genus gene pool, with the remaining diversity being underexplored [23,24,25,26,27,28]. Other multipurpose species of potential economic importance include M. Stenopetala, and M. peregrina and, to a lesser extent, M. concanensis Nimmo and M. drouhardii Jum. (Table 1). Unfortunately, the genetic diversity of M. arborea, M. borziana, M. longituba, M. peregrina, M. rivae, M. ruspoliana, and M. stenopetala is endangered [13,25], with M. arborea being listed in the 2006 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened species [27]. M. hildebrandtii Engl. is extinct in the wild, but still surviving in a huge numbers of traditional horticultural uses in Madagascar [28]. Therefore, the preservation of the Moringa species is of a great importance for biodiversity, ethno-botanical, dietary, nutritional, pharmacological, medicinal and socio-economical perspectives.

3. Morphological Characteristics

Although with only 13 species, the Moringa genus is one of the most phenotypically and morphologically diverse group of the angiosperms, ranging in size from tiny herbs to massive trees [1]. This great variability is probably due to the various ecological and environmental conditions in which the species are grown and naturalized [29]. Moringa species are mainly divided into three different classes according to their size and shape: the “slender trees” group includes M. peregrina, M. concanensis and M. oleifera; the “bottle trees” group comprises M. drouhardii, M. hildebrandtii, M. stenopetala and M. ovalifolia; and the “tuberous shrubs” group is composed of M. arborea, M. borziana, M. rivae, M. ruspoliana, M. longituba Engl. and M. pygmaea Verdc. [1].
M. oleifera (Table 2) is a relatively fast-growing tree which can achieve more than 10 m tall and is supplemented by a crown in the shape of an umbrella [14]. Its leaves are small and pale green in color; the flowers are fragrant, white or creamy white; immature pods are pendulous, green and tender, and turn dark and solid at maturity, the bark is whitish and corky [30]. Among the best studied species, accurate data can also be found for M. peregrina and M. stenopetala, the ones of most potential based on present knowledge. M. peregrina (Table 2) can reach 3 to 10 m height after only 10 months from seeds’ planting. It has grayish-green bark; long leaves; bisexual yellowish white to pink, showy, fragrant flowers; the fruits are elongate capsules, with a beak, glabrous and slightly narrowed between the seeds [23,24]. M. stenopetala (Table 2) is a 6 to 12 m tall tree with a diameter of 60 cm and a smooth bark; its pods are elongated, reddish with grayish blooms and twisted when the fruit is fresh [23]; its seeds are triangular, containing an oval shaped whitish grey kernel [31].
Several studies have been focused on the morphological and molecular differences among the most economically and commercially important species. El-Kheir et al. [12] investigated the morphological differences among three known Moringa species during the flowering season, namely M. oleifera, M. peregrina and M. stenopetala, and reported a significant range of variation between M. peregrina and the two other species, which are nearly similar in respect to quantitative and qualitative parameters namely the leaf, leaflet, branch and pod (Table 2). Pod types were similar in the three species despite their different color and seeds shape but the leaves’ characteristics are sufficient to distinguish these two species: M. oleifera has larger tripinnate leaves while M. peregrina is characterized with bipinnate and smaller leaves [32]. Despite the reduced information on M. concanensis to enable its parallel comparison in Table 2, this species is smaller is height and distinguishable by its flowers with yellow petals with red or pink veins, and 3 angles white or pale yellow seeds [33].
All Moringa trees bear long pods (fruits) in variable numbers, containing up to 20 seeds each [11]. The number of pods per M. oleifera tree differs between accessions, ranging from 10 to 62, with different seed weights (between 25.5 g and 37.3 g for 100 seeds) but with reduced productivity over years [16,34]. M. oleifera tree produces more flowers per tree than M. peregrina and, therefore, sets higher number of pods and seeds per tree and in a more consistent and homogeneous way with plant maturity [35]. On the other hand, M. peregrina plant produces bigger seeds and appears to be less vulnerable to diseases than M. oleifera [36]. However, effective seed productivity is dependent not only upon the species/varieties, but also on cultivation techniques, soil and climate, as discussed below.

4. Cultivation and Climatic Requirements

M. oleifera is the unique species for which cultivation practices have been developed and reported in the literature [27,37]. Cultivation and propagation information on the other Moringa species are very restricted [38]. Therefore, in the absence of cultivation practices of other species, and with the growing demands by local populations, wild-harvest and over-browsing is decimating natural tree resources [27].
Moringa is widely known as the “Never Die” plant because of its large-scale adaptability to climate, soil and other environmental variations [39]. M. oleifera grows in almost all types of soils, except stiff, heavy clays, and it does not tolerate stagnant water or frequent flooding [38]. It grows well in sandy or loamy soils with a slightly acidic to highly alkaline pH, a rainfall range of 250–3000 mm and a temperature range of 25–35 °C [40]. Soil compositions was found to have no significant influence on the growth character of M. oleifera including the number of the leaves, stem diameter and plant height [41], although it affects seed weight [42].
Direct seeding is the most adopted method because of its high germination rate and formation of deep, stout taproot with a wide-spreading system of thick, tuberous lateral roots [33]. The percentage of M. oleifera seeds’ germination is generally high, ranging from 60% to 100% [35]. Steinitz et al. [27], while examining the possibility of initiating micro-cloning in vitro of seedlings, found comparable germination rate for M. oleifera, M. stenopetala, and M. peregrine, of 77%, 72% and 69%, respectively. Cultivation by cuttings and transplantation are also used, but the plants do not develop taproots, making them more sensitive to drought and wind. Still, propagation by cuttings seems to be preferred by some farmers, since it promises a quick flowering and fruiting rates, and gives the best quality fruits [4,22]. Still, transplanting young plants requires utmost care as the tap roots are tender [33,43].
Cultivation methods should be also adapted to the major crop purpose, for seed or leaf production [44]. Seeds production requires a low density plantation (2.5 × 2.5 m or 3 × 3 m), while for leaf production it can vary from intensive (spacing from 10 × 10 cm to 20 × 20 cm), semi-intensive (spacing 50 × 50 cm), or integrated into an agroforestry system (spacing distance of 2–4 m) [45,46]. Intercropping with other staple food crops, like cassava, maize and sorghum, is very frequent in south Ethiopia and Kenya: Moringa leaves shed on the soil serve as green manure to increase soil fertility and to maximize crop yield [46]. Pruning increases branching and vegetative growth, being adequate to maximize leaf production, but the number of pods per plant decreases, despite showing no significant effect on seed weight [45].
Moringa seeds are usually sown during the rainy season and can germinate and grow without any irrigation. Still, for commercial purposes, Moringa seedlings are usually watered twice a day during three months, and irrigation through a drip system is recommended, in order to maintain leaf and seed production during the dry season [2,46]. Also, watering regimes had a significant effect on some growth parameters; the plants watered twice a day gave higher number of leaves and increased seeds weight and oil yield [42]. Ferreira da Costa et al. [47] investigated the cultivation of M. oleifera under low temperature conditions and observed a slow initial growth rate (in autumn/winter season), with high mortality. Accordingly, extreme frost or freeze conditions are not recommended for Moringa cultivation [19,47].
Plantations of M. peregrina have also been assessed as quite promising, with reasonably rapid and an easy cultivation [48]. The juvenility of M. peregrina trees was significantly extended compared to M. oleifera, with trees blooming twice a year, during summer and autumn, and with a bloom level of individual trees significantly more uniform with years of cultivation. Summer bloom of M. peregrina produced mature pods during autumn of the same year while autumn bloom produces a significantly lower number of pods that remained immature throughout the winter and matured during the spring of the following year. However, the average temperature increase in the last decades is causing several climate alterations, as in the Sinai Peninsula, where extended droughts periods, followed by extreme rainfalls, concentrate all the precipitation over only a few days. This is affecting particularly M. peregrina in this region, with a population decline of over 15% in from 2009 to 2015 [25], sustaining its susceptibility to harsh climates and the need to give attention to this species.
Cultivation of adequate Moringa species can contribute to minimize desertification under changing climatic conditions and improve the environmental condition of arid countries [12,19], in addition to its inspiring ability to sequester the level of atmospheric carbon dioxide, 20 times higher than that of general vegetation [49]. Therefore, the encouragement of its planting and development is suitable and beneficial from an environmental point of view, to combat desertification and climate changes mitigation in arid and semi-arid areas. Nevertheless, the lack of awareness in regards to this crop made its development for commercial purposes restricted and uncommon. India is the sole country where Moringa is developed as an export crop [19,50]. For commercial purposes, large-scale and semi-intensive plantations of Moringa are advised and widely pursued [43] but smallholder commercial production areas (ranging from 16 to 1200 ha) are also adapted [45].

5. Pests and Diseases

Generally, Moringa is usually resistant to most serious pathogenic pests and diseases in its native or introduced forms [19,51], without suffering greatly from insect attacks or diseases [45]. However, some exceptions may occur under certain practices and climatic conditions, especially under new environments as it faces new ecological interactions. Over the last few years, pests, diseases and parasitic plants affecting Moringa crops have been the keen target of scientific researchers in the field, partly to maintain the survey of plantations and the high yields production of the tree parts (leaves, pods, seeds, etc.) and to prevent consumers’ health hazards [46,51].
Insect pests associated with M. oleifera can be categorized as defoliators, sap feeders, and bark, pod and seed borers, together with some non-insect pests [52,53]. Insect larva (e.g., Noordablitealis, Eupterote mollifera, Euproctis pasteopa [53], Ulopeza phaeothoracica [54]) mostly fed on the leaves, causing reduced leaf biomass production and damaged leaves are improper for human consumption. Seeds, when punctured by larva, became unviable for seedling and other uses. Mridha and Barakah (2015) [55] reported several pathogenic fungi in pods sold in Saudi Arabian markets. Parasitic plants growing on M. oleifera (e.g., Mistletoe Phoradendron quadrangulare (Viscaceae) in Mexico [56], Dendrophthoe falcata [57]) were also listed as a problem by farmers [46,56].
M. stenopetala seems to be more resistant to insect pests than the other family species [31]. Nevertheless, it is vulnerable to a caterpillar called seexxe [58]. On the same line, Vaknin and Mishal [36] reported M. oleifera trees to be the most susceptible to a fungal disease attacking specifically their root system, while all M. peregrina trees remained unaffected. Moreover, non-insect pests like spider mites are reported to infect M. rivae, M. concanensis and M. oleifera leaves [53,59], while M. peregrina and M. borziana have not shown any mites troubles [53], demonstrating that some Moringa species are more exposed than others to pests and diseases attacks. Although pests and diseases are not a major warning for Moringa cultivation, some measures and practices should be followed to avoid any economic losses, in accordance to the problem faced.

6. Seed Oil Content and Composition

Seed weight and kernel percentage are highly variable between species. Table 3 resumes published data, showing that M. oleifera and M. concanensis have the highest kernel yield per seed, but the latter has very small seeds. On the other hand, M. drouhardii and M. hildebrandtii have seeds almost tenfold heavier than M. oleifera, with a kernel proportion still superior to 50%.
Generally, all Moringa species are rich in oil. However, variations in oil contents are perceived from literature (Table 3). Except for M. drouhardii, all species have interesting oil contents, particularly M. oleifera and M. stenopetala. These variations are related to factors influencing oil content such as cultivars, environmental and geographical conditions, as previously discussed.
Within M. oleifera, breeding efforts have been focused on the development or preservation of adapted varieties with high yields of edible and fleshy green fruits (pods), due to their nutritional potential, and also high seed oil yield, but most reports are within the 30% to 40% range (Table 4). For effective yield, however, field productivity has also to be taken into account, particularly the number of seeds per hectare, strongly associated with cultivation practices. All combined, the early Moringa variety Periyakalum-1 (PKM-1) from India has an interesting productivity per tree, higher than others from African origin, and consistent between geographical zones, being interesting for the development of improved M. oleifera varieties adapted to sub-tropical environments [15,16].
Vaknin and Mishal. [36] proposed the development of M. oleifera × M. peregrina interspecies hybrids to ensure new efficient Moringa genotypes producing elevated fruits yields, as in M. oleifera, and bigger seeds yielding higher levels oil and less affected by diseases, as in M. peregrina.
As regards Moringa oil composition in fatty acids (Table 5), a clear dominance of mono-unsaturated fatty acids is highlighted, mainly composed by oleic, palmitoleic and eicosenoic acids. Saturated fatty acids are reduced, with palmitic, arachidic and behenic acids being the most representative ones, and only traces of polyunsaturated fatty acids [37,48,60,61,62,63,78]. In M. oleifera seed oil, oleic acid ranged from 66.5% to 81.7%, in M. peregrina from 71.1% to 77.8% and in M. stenopetala is within the 63% to 76% range (Table 5), highly similar. Moringa species are characterized by a high levels of behenic acids, with M. oleifera being the richest species (2.9–8.13%) against 2.7–7.8% in M. peregrina and 5.6–6.1% in M. stenopetala [36,60,63,79]. These high behenic acid amounts are responsible for M. oleifera generic name “Ben-oil tree” [36]. Moringa oils have usually low free fatty acid content (2%), making neutralization unnecessary. However, due to the presence of high amounts of phospholipids there is usually a need for degumming [61,79].
From a health point of view, the oil is also rich is phytosterols, consistently between 0.2 and 0.6 g/100 g oil, being rich in β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol and Δ5-avenalsterol [71]. The vitamin E amounts are variable, probably depending on extractive conditions and preservation of the oil, but are consistently dominated by α-tocopherol, relevant for human health (Table 5). Altogether, this composition is responsible for its high resistance to oxidation (Table 5), described as being higher than that of olive oil [64]. The potential nutritional quality of M. oleifera oil was further evaluated on both crude and degummed oil, on 28-day to 49-day feeding experiments with Fisher rats, using soybean, corn and olive oils as references [84,85]. Results showed similar food efficiency with other oils, with no differences between crude and degummed oil, and without visible alteration of with adequate biological quality for both crude and degummed oils.

7. Oil Extraction and Applications

The amounts of seed oil reported in the literature, as reviewed above (Table 3 and Table 4), are quantified under laboratory conditions, making use of organic solvents. Therefore, they give a measure of the maximum oil potential but not the true yield under field extractive conditions. There are currently several options for the industrial extraction of oil from Moringa seeds. Similar to other vegetable oils, conventional solvent extraction with hexane or petroleum ether is the classical approach [64,79], recovering around 90% of the lipids. Several attempts to decrease its environmental impact, using greener solvents, as ethanol [85], or supercritical fluids [86,87] are being reported. Extraction efficiency can also be enhanced with the combined use of ultrasound or microwave treatments, with 95% extraction efficiently in the latter [88]. All these approaches have been implemented mostly in M. oleifera seeds. No data on other methods than organic solvent extraction under laboratory conditions were found for other Moringa species, but their effectiveness is not expected to be highly variable.
Mechanical pressing has been classically used by local producers. However, these techniques have gained high importance in modern vegetable oil industry, imposed by their natural richness in bioactive compounds, increasingly pursued by consumers, and lower environmental impact. However, the yields under cold extraction are usually low, corresponding to about 60% of the extractive efficiency obtained with hexane [67,76]. Several parameters can be optimized to maximize recovery, including the seeds’ size, moisture content, applied pressure, and temperature [89]. Aqueous enzymatic extraction has also been approached with positive outcomes, with up to 70% oil recovery [90,91], with easier phase separation efficiency when kernels are previously submitted to high pressure treatments, an increasingly common technique in the food industry [92]. One report on cold extraction of M. stenopetala seeds, variety Marigat, gave 35.7% of oil [64], which corresponds to an efficiency superior to 79%.
Seed remains after oil extraction have also been tentatively valorized using diverse approaches, particularly for water purification, including industrial wastewaters [93]. Its richness in protein, superior to 50% on a dry basis, makes it a highly potential source of protein for food purposes, similarly to soybean, providing that adequate nutritional studies are performed [94].
For food purposes, the universe of applications of Moringa oil is huge, due both to its monounsaturated nature, vigorously pursued presently due to its health effects, and the high stability toward oxidation. Altogether, Moringa oil has a high stability under frying conditions, even superior to that of similar mono-unsatured oils providing that it is refined to eliminate saponins [95]. When used in blends for frying, it also delayed the degradation of the oil, with economic impacts for users and health benefits for consumers [96,97]. Crude oils can be used for other applications than frying, being naturally enriched in bioactive compounds, with increased stability toward oxidation than refined ones. This will be reflected in a high shelf life time of the oil, when used as is or when used as an oil source in processed foods, as cookies [5]. Additionally, the melting properties of Moringa oil are also indicated as being highly interesting for the industry of spread products and margarines, as a healthy alternative to partially hydrogenated fats [5]. Also, Moringa oil can be used in blends, to enhance the oxidative stability of commercial oils or margarines. A 50% blend with butter results in a functional spread with increased stability and lower cholesterol content, and a highly interesting melting temperature of 35.5 °C [7]. Fractionation, into high oleic and stearin fractions, was also tested by dry crystallization, with the elevated content of behenic acid (C22:0) being described as favorable for the crystallization process [7]. Martins et al. [83] have also optimized a process of sterol concentration by distillation with economic feasibility.
The biodiesel industry can also look into this oil with high expectations. The recent attention into biodiesel production has put several crops under a huge stress with an urgent need to find sustainable alternatives. Moringa species, due to their ease of production, high oil yields and increased oil stability toward oxidation, represent interesting alternatives, with effective research already demonstrating the effectiveness of M. oleifera, M. stenopetala and M. peregrina [8,48,98]. The low free fatty acid content, high saponification value and increased stability has motivated several researchers to explore the optimization of oil extraction and methylation for biodiesel production. The quality of biodiesel prepared from Moringa oil is of superior quality than other oil sources, with increased stability and octane number [7].

8. Conclusions

The Moringa genus has a great biodiversity reserve that should be better explored, particularly in sub-tropical countries. Current knowledge has demonstrated that the efforts applied to M. oleifera have proven its potential as a multipurpose plant, particularly as a profitable source of vegetable oil for food and industrial purposes. There have been recent efforts to find efficient methods to optimize production yields (select adapted varieties, appropriate cultivating methods, spacing areas, fertilizers and irrigating systems) and oil extraction (classical and emergent technologies). However, other Moringa species present characteristics that point to similar abilities, providing that they receive equal attention by cultivators, researchers and financial institutions in general. In particular, M. stenopetala has an interesting adaptation to severe drought, of potential interest in a climate change scenario. The same applies to M. peregrina, showing great resistance to pests and diseases. Knowing that field studies take a huge time to accomplish sustained conclusions, even if supported by the knowledge already assembled from M. oleifera studies, there is an urgent need to increase attention about these species. In the search for alternative oil sources, particularly those rich in monounsaturated fatty acids, Moringa species have valuable promise in the years to come.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization and methodology, S.B., S.C. and F.Z.; Data Curation, S.B. and S.C.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, S.B.; Writing—Review and Editing, S.C. and F.Z.; Supervision, S.C. and F.Z.

Funding

This research was funded by from project UID/QUI/50006/2013-POCI/01/0145/FEDER/007265 with financial support from FCT/MEC through national funds, co-financed by FEDER, under the Partnership Agreement PT2020 and by the PhD Grant—attributed to Silia Boukandoul by the University of Porto under the Erasmus Mundus program in coordination with University of Abderrahmane MIRA of Bejaia, Algeria.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Olson, M.E. Combining data from DNA sequences and morphology for a phylogeny of Moringaceae (Brassicales). Syst. Bot. 2002, 17, 55–73. [Google Scholar]
  2. Leone, A.; Spada, A.; Battezzati, A.; Schiraldi, A.; Aristil, J.; Bertoli, S. Moringa oleifera seeds and oil: Characteristics and uses for human health. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Rani, A.; Zahirah, N.; Husain, K.; Kumolosasi, E. Moringa genus: A review of phytochemistry and pharmacology. Front. Pharmacol. 2018, 9, 108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Kou, X.; Li, B.; Olayanju, J.B.; Drake, J.M.; Chen, N. Nutraceutical or Pharmacological Potential of Moringa oleifera Lam. Nutrients 2018, 10, 343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Saucedo-Pompaa, S.; Torres-Castilloc, J.A.; Castro-Lópeza, C.; Rojasa, R.; Sánchez-Alejoa, E.J.; Ngangyo-Heyad, M.; Martínez-Ávilaa, G.C.G. Moringa plants: Bioactive compounds and promising applications in food Products. Food Res. Int. 2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Ramachandran, C.; Peter, K.V.; Gopalakrishnan, K. Drumstick (Moringa oleifera): A multiple Indian vegetable. Econ. Bot. 1980, 34, 276–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Nadeem, M.; Imran, M. Promising features of Moringa oleifera oil: Recent updates and perspectives. Lipids Health Dis. 2016, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Fernandes, D.M.; Sousa, R.M.F.; de Oliveira, A.; Morais, S.A.L.; Richter, E.M.; Muñoz, R.A.A. Moringa oleifera: A potential source for production of biodiesel and antioxidant additives. Fuel 2015, 146, 75–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Warra, A.A. A review of Moringa oleifera Lam. seed oil prospects in personal care formulations. Res. Rev. J. Pharm. Nanotechnol. 2014, 2, 31–34. [Google Scholar]
  10. Alaklabi, A. Genetic diversity of Moringa peregrina species in Saudi Arabia with ITS sequences. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2015, 22, 186–190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Somali, M.A.; Bajneid, M.A.; Al-Fhaimani, S.S. Chemical composition and characteristics of Moringa peregrina seeds and seeds oil. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 1984, 61, 85–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. El-Kheir, Z.A.A.; Al-Zohairy, A.M.; Dahab, A.A.; El-Fadl, S.R.A. Assessment of biodiversity based on morphological characteristics and rapid markers among three Moringa species. Egypt. J. Biotechnol. 2017, 54, 45–61. [Google Scholar]
  13. Stephenson, K.K.; Fahey, J.W. Development of tissue culture methods for the rescue and propagation of endangered Moringa spp. Germplasm. Econ. Bot. 2004, 58, 116–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Morton, J.F. The horseradish tree, Moringa Pterygosperma (Moringaceae)—A boon to arid lands. Econ. Bot. 1991, 45, 318–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Ayerza, R. Seed yield components, oil content, and fatty acid composition of two cultivars of Moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.) growing in the Arid Chaco of Argentina. Ind. Crops Prod. 2011, 33, 389–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Ayerza, R. Seed and oil yields of Moringa oleifera variety Periyakalum-1 introduced for oil production in four ecosystems of South America. Ind. Crops Prod. 2012, 36, 70–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Anwar, F.; Latif, S.; Ashraf, M.; Gilani, A.H. Moringa oleifera: A food plant with multiple medicinal uses. Phytother. Res. 2007, 21, 17–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Boukandoul, S.; Casal, S.; Cruz, R.; Pinto, C.; Zaidi, F. Algerian Moringa oleifera whole seeds and kernels oils: Characterization, oxidative stability and antioxidant capacity. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2017, 119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Mridha, M.A.U. Prospects of Moringa cultivation in Saudi Arabia. J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2015, 5, 39–46. [Google Scholar]
  20. Ojiako, F.O.; Adikuru, N.C.; Emenyonu, C.A. Critical issues in investment, production and Marketing of Moringa oleifera as an industrial agricultural raw material in Nigeria. J. Agric. Res. Dev. 2011, 10, 40–56. [Google Scholar]
  21. Korsor, M.; Ntahonshikira, C.; Bello, H.M.; Kwaambwa, H.M. Comparative proximate and mineral composition of Moringa oleifera and Moringa ovalifolia grown in Central Namibia. Sustain. Agric. Res. 2017, 6, 31–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Castillo-Lopez, R.I.; Leon-Félix, J.; Angulo-Escalante, M.A.; Gutiérrez-Dorando, R.; Muy-Rangel, M.D.; Heredia, J.B. Nutritional and phenolic characterization of Moringa oleifera leaves grown in Sinaloa, Mexico. Pak. J. Bot. 2017, 49, 161–168. [Google Scholar]
  23. Padayachee, B.; Baijnath, H. An overview of the medicinal importance of Moringaceae. J. Med. Plants Res. 2012, 6, 5831–5839. [Google Scholar]
  24. Zaghloul, M.S.; Abd El-Wahab, R.H.; Moustafa, A.A. Ecological assessment and phenotypic and fitness variation of Sinai’s remnant populations of Moringa Peregrina. Appl. Ecol. Environ. Res. 2010, 8, 351–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Dadamouny, M.A.; Unterseher, M.; König, P.; Schnittler, M. Population performance of Moringa peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori (Moringaceae) at Sinai Peninsula, Egypt in the last decades: Consequences for its conservation. J. Nat. Conserv. 2016, 34, 65–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Hakham, E.; Ritte, U. Foraging pressure of the Nubian ibex Capra ibex nubiana and its effect on the indigenous vegetation of the En Gedi Nature Reserve, Israel. Biol. Conserv. 1993, 63, 9–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Steinitz, B.; Tabib, Y.; Gaba, V.; Gefen, T.; Vaknin, Y. Vegetative micro-cloning to sustain biodiversity of threatened Moringa species. In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol.-Plant 2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Olson, M.E.; Razafimandimbison, S.G. Moringa hildebrandtii (Morongaceae): A tree extinct in the wild but preserved by indigenous horticultural practices in Madagascar. Adansonia 2000, 22, 217–221. [Google Scholar]
  29. Gandji, C.T.; Mudyiwan, S.M.; Mupangwa, J.F.; Gotosa, J. Cultivation practices and utilization of Moringa oleifera provenances by small holder farmers: Case of Zimbabwe. Asian J. Agric. Ext. Econ. Sociol. 2013, 2, 152–162. [Google Scholar]
  30. Ashraq, M.; Basra, S.M.A.; Ashfaq, U. Moringa: A miracle plant for agroforestry. J. Agric. Soc. Sci. 2012, 8, 115–122. [Google Scholar]
  31. Seifu, E. Physicochemical properties of Moringa stenopetala (Haleko) seeds. J. Biol. Sci. 2012, 12, 197–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Hassanien, A.M.A.; Al-Soqeer, A.A. Morphological and genetic diversity of Moringa oleifera and Moringa peregrina genotypes. Hortic. Environ. Biotechnol. 2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Manzoor, M.; Anwar, F.; Iqbal, T.; Bhanger, M.I. Physicochemical characterization of Moringa concanensis seeds and seed oil. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2007, 84, 413–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Chukwuebuka, E. Moringa oleifera “the mother’s best friend”. Int. J. Nutr. Food Sci. 2015, 4, 624–630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Popoola, J.O.; Bello, O.A.; Obembe, O.O. Phenotype intraspecific variability among some accessions of Drumustick (Moringa oleifera Lam.). Can. J. Pure Appl. Sci. 2016, 10, 3681–3693. [Google Scholar]
  36. Vaknin, Y.; Mishal, A. The potential of tropical “miracle tree” Moringa oleifera and its desert relative Moringa peregrina as edible seed-oil and protein crops under Mediterranean conditions. Sci. Hortic. 2017, 225, 431–437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Sánchez, N.R.; Ledin, S.; Ledin, I. Biomass production and chemical composition of Moringa oleifera under different management regimes in Nicaragua. Agrofor. Syst. 2006, 66, 231–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Stadtlander, T.; Becker, K. Proximate composition, amino and fatty acid profiles and element compositions of four different Moringa species. J. Agric. Sci. 2017, 9, 46–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Fuglie, L.J. Introduction to the multiple uses of Moringa. In The Miracle Tree: The Multiple Attributes of Moringa; Church World Service: New York, NY, USA, 2001. [Google Scholar]
  40. Thurber, M.D.; Fahey, J.W. Adoption of Moringa oleifera to combat under-nutrition viewed through the lens of the “diffusion of innovations” theory. Ecol. Food Nutr. 2009, 48, 212–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  41. Sale, F.A.; Attah, E.S.; Yahaya, P. Influence of soil locations and watering regimes on early growth of Moringa oleifera Lams. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Technol. 2015, 5, 80–87. [Google Scholar]
  42. Anwar, F.; Zafar, S.N.; Rashid, U. Characterization of Moringa oleifera seed oil from drought and irrigated regions of Punjab, Pakistan. Grasas Aceites 2006, 57, 160–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Gopalakrishnan, L.; Doriya, K.; Kumar, D.S. Moringa oleifera: A review on nutritive importance and its medicinal applications. Food Sci. Hum. Wellness 2016, 5, 49–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Ojoawo, O.T.; Akinlade, J.A.; Akingbade, A.A.; Aderinola, O.A. Influence of planting distance on seed yield and size of Moringa oleifera. Int. J. Res. Agric. Sci. 2014, 1, 2348–3997. [Google Scholar]
  45. Roshetko, J.M.; Purnomosidhi, P.; Sabastian, G.; Dahlia, L.; Mahrizal, M.; Mulyoutami, E.; Perdana, A.; Megawati, M.; Riyandoko, R.; Maulana, H.T.; et al. Ethnobotanical use and commercial potential of Moringa oleifera in Indonesia: An underused and under-recognized species. Acta Hortic. 2017, 1158, 349–356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Kumssa, D.B.; Joy, E.J.M.; Young, S.D.; Odee, D.W.; Ander, E.L.; Magare, C.; Gitu, J.; Broadley, M.R. Challenges and opportunities for Moringa oleifera in Southern Ethiopia and Kenya. PLoS ONE 2017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Ferreira da Costa, P.; Rabello de Oliveira, P.S.; Borsoi, A.; Soares de Vasconcelos, E.; Taffarel, E.L.; Piano, T.J.; Sartos, M.V.M. Initial growth of Moringa oleifera Lam. under different planting densities in autumn/winter in South Brazil. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 2015, 10, 394–398. [Google Scholar]
  48. Salaheldeen, M.; Aroua, M.K.; Mariod, A.A.; Cheng, S.F.; Abdelrahman, M.A. An evaluation of Moringa peregrina seeds as a source for bio-fuel. Ind. Crops Prod. 2014, 61, 49–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Daba, M. Miracle tree: A review on multipurposes of Moringa oleifera and its implication for climate change mitigation. J. Earth Sci. Clim. Chang. 2016, 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Hegde, S.; Hegde, V. An overview of Moringa production in Ethiopia. Int. J. Sci. Res. 2013, 4, 826–829. [Google Scholar]
  51. Mridha, M.A.U.; Barakah, F.N. Diseases and pests of Moringa: A mini review. Acta Hortic. 2017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Kotikal, Y.K.; Math, M. Insect and non-insect pests associated with drumstick, Moringa oleifera (Lamk.). Entomol. Ornithol. Herpetol. 2016, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Joshi, R.C.; David, B.V.; Kant, R. A review of the insect and mite pests of Moringa oleifera Lam. Agric. Dev. 2016, 29, 29–33. [Google Scholar]
  54. Yusuf, S.R.; Yusif, D.I. Severe Damage of Moringa oleifera Lam. leaves by Ulopeza Phaethoracica Hampson (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) in Ungogo Local Government Area, Ano State, Nigeria: A Short Communication. Bayero J. Pure Appl. Sci. 2014, 7, 127–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Mridha, M.A.U.; Barakah, F.N. Report on the association of fungi with the fruits of Moringa oleifera Lam. a highly valued medicinal plant. In Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Moringa, Manila, Philippines, 15–18 November 2015. [Google Scholar]
  56. Moreno-Ramírez, Y.D.R.; Torres-Castillo, J.A.; Mora-Olivo, A.; Torres-Acosta, R.I. First Report of the Mistletoe Phoradendron quadrangulare (Viscaceae) on Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae) in Mexico. Plant Dis. 2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Thriveni, M.C.; Shivamurthy, G.R.; Amruthesh, K.N.; Vijay, C.R.; Kavitha, G.R. Mistletoes and their hosts in Karnataka. J. Am. Sci. 2010, 6, 827–835. [Google Scholar]
  58. Demeulenaere, E. Moringa stenopetala, a subsistence resource in the Konso district. In Proceedings of the Development potential for Moringa products, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 29 October–2 November 2001. [Google Scholar]
  59. Olson, M.E. The International Moringa Germplasm Collection. Available online: http://moringaceae.org/ (accessed on 29 June 2018).
  60. Al-Juhaimi, F.; Ghafoor, K.; Babiker, E.E.; Matthaus, B.; Ozcan, M.M. The biochemical composition of the leaves and seeds meals of Moringa species as non-conventional sources of nutrients. J. Food Biotechnol. 2016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Tsaknis, J. Characterization of Moringa peregrina Arabia seed oil. Grasas Aceites 1998, 49, 170–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Lalas, S.; Gortzi, O.; Tsaknis, J. Frying stability of Moringa stenopetala seed oil. Plants Food Hum. Nutr. 2006, 61, 99–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Melaku, Y.; Arnold, N.; Schmidt, J.; Dagne, E. Analysis of the husk and the kernel of the seeds of Moringa stenopetala. Bull. Chem. Soc. Ethiop. 2017, 31, 107–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Lalas, S.; Tsaknis, J.; Sflomos, K. Characterisation of Moringa stenopetala seed oil variety “Marigat” from island Kokwa. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2003, 105, 23–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Bhatnagar, A.S.; Gopala Krishna, A.G. Natural antioxidant of Jaffna variety of Moringa oleifera seed oil from Indian origin as compared to other vegetable oils. Grasas Aceites 2013, 64, 537–545. [Google Scholar]
  66. Ogunsina, B.S.; Indira, T.N.; Bhatnagar, A.S.; Radha, C.; Debnath, S.; Gopala Krishna, A.G. Quality characteristics and stability of Moringa oleifera seed oil of Indian origin. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2014, 51, 503–510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  67. Tsaknis, J.; Lalas, S.; Gergis, V.; Douroglou, V.; Spiliotis, V. Characterization of Moringa oleifera variety Mbololo seed oil of Kenya. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1999, 47, 4495–4499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  68. Lalas, S.; Tsaknis, J. Characterization of Moringa oleifera seed oil variety “Periyakulam 1”. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2002, 15, 65–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Anwar, F.; Bhanger, M.I. Analytical characterization of Moringa oleifera seed oil grown in temperate regions of Pakistan. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 6558–6563. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  70. Anwar, F.; Ashraf, M.; Bhanger, M.I. Interprovenance variation in the composition of Moringa oleifera oilseeds from Pakistan. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2005, 82, 45–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Ogbunugafor, H.A.; Eneh, F.U.; Ozumba, A.N.; Igwo-Ezikpe, M.N.; Okpuzor, J.; Igwilo, I.O.; Adenekan, S.O.; Onyekwelu, O.A. Physico-chemical and Antioxidant Properties of Moringa oleifera Seed Oil. Pak. J. Nutr. 2011, 10, 409–414. [Google Scholar]
  72. Adegbe, A.A.; Larayetan, R.A.; Omojuwa, T.J. Proximate analysis, physicochemical properties and chemical constituents characterization of Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae) seed oil using GC-MS analysis. Am. J. Chem. 2016, 6, 23–28. [Google Scholar]
  73. Nzikou, J.M.; Matos, L.; Moussounga, J.E.; Ndangui, C.B.; Kimbonguila, A.; Silou, T.; Linder, M.; Desorby, S. Characterisation of Moringa oleifera seed oil variety Congo-Brazzaville. J. Food Technol. 2009, 7, 59–65. [Google Scholar]
  74. Bouanga-Kalou, S.; Dhellot, J.R.; Matos, L.; Kimbonguila, A.; Mountou-Tchitoula, D.; Malela, K.E.; Hpunpunpu, C.H.; Nzikou, J.M.; Silou, T.; Desobry, S. Characteristic physicochemical of oil extract from Moringa oleifera and the kinetics of degradation of the oil during heating. Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. 2014, 7, 3649–3655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Lalas, S.; Tsaknis, J. Extraction and identification of natural antioxidant from the seeds of the Moringa oleifera tree variety of Malawi. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2002, 79, 677–683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Mohammed, A.S.; Lai, O.M.; Muhammad, S.K.S.; Long, K.; Ghazali, H.M. Moringa oleifera, Potentially a new source of oleic acid-type oil for Malaysia. In Investing in Innovation 2003; Serdang Press: Selangor, Malaysia, 2003; Volume 3, pp. 137–140. [Google Scholar]
  77. Rahman, I.M.M.; Barua, S.; Nazimuddin, M.; Begum, Z.A.; Rahman, M.A.; Hasegawa, H. Physicochemical properties of Moringa oleifera Lam. seed oil of the indigenous-cultivar of Bangladesh. J. Food Lipids 2009, 16, 540–553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Díaz-Domínguez, Y.; Tabio-García, D.; Rondón-Macias, M.; Fernández-Santana, E.; Muñoz-Rodríguez, S.; Ameneiros-Martínez, J.M.; Piloto-Rodríguez, R. Extraction and characterization of Moringa oleifera Lam var. Supergenius seed oil from Cuba. Rev. CENIC Cienc. Quím. 2017, 48, 017–026. [Google Scholar]
  79. Amaglo, N.K.; Bennet, R.N.; Lo-Curto, R.B.; Rosa, E.A.S.; Giuffrida, V.L.T.A.; Lo-Curto, A.; Crea, F.; Timpo, G.M. Profiling selected phytochemicals and nutrients in different tissues of the multipurpose tree Moringa oleifera L., grown in Ghana. Food Chem. 2010, 122, 1047–1054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Pereira, F.S.G.; Galvao, C.C.; De-Lima, V.F.; Da-Rocha, M.F.A.; Schuler, A.R.P.; Da-Silva, V.L.; De-Lima Filho, N.M. Versatility of the Moringa oleifera oil in sustainable applications. OCL 2016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Latif, S.; Anwar, F. Quality assessment of Moringa concanensis seed oil extracted through solvent and aqueous-enzymatic techniques. Grasas Aceites 2008, 59, 69–75. [Google Scholar]
  82. Martins, P.F.; De Melo, M.M.R.; Silva, C.M. Techno-economic optimization of the subcritical fluid extraction of oil from Moringa oleifera seeds and subsequent production of a purified sterols fraction. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2016, 107, 682–689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Hosseinpour, S.; Aghbashlo, M.; Tabatabaei, M.; Khalife, E. Exact estimation of biodiesel cetane number (CN) from its fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) profile using partial least square (PLS) adapted by artificial neural network (ANN). Energy Convers. Manag. 2016, 124, 389–398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Andrade, G.F.; Melo, T.M.S.; Guedes, C.D.; Novack, K.M.; Dos-Santos, R.C.; Silva, M.E. Biological evaluation of crude and degummed oil from Moringa oleifera seeds. Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol. 2011, 54, 1003–1006. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Basuny, A.M.; Al-Marzouq, M.A. Biochemical Studies on Moringa oleifera Seed Oil. MOJ Food Process Technol. 2016, 2, 00030. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Palafox, J.O.; Navarrete, A.; Sacramento-Rivero, J.C.; Rubio-Atoche, C.; Escoffie, P.A.; Rocha-Uribe, J.A. Extraction and characterization of oil from Moringa oleifera using supercritical CO2 and traditional solvents. Am. J. Anal. Chem. 2012, 3, 946–949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Zhao, S.; Zhang, D. A parametric study of supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of oil from Moringa oleifera seeds using a response surface methodology. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2013, 113, 9–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Zhong, J.; Wang, Y.; Yang, R.; Liu, X.; Yang, Q.; Qin, X. The application of ultrasound and microwave to increase oil extraction from Moringa oleifera seeds. Ind. Crops Prod. 2018, 120, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Fakayode, O.A.; Ajav, E.A.; Akinoso, R. Effects of processing factors on the quality of mechanically expressed Moringa (Moringa oleifera) oil: A response surface approach. J. Food Process Eng. 2017, 40, e12538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Abdulkarim, S.M.; Long, K.; Lai, O.M.; Muhammad, S.K.S.; Ghazali, H.M. Some physico-chemical properties of Moringa oleifera seed oil extracted using solvent and aqueous enzymatic methods. Food Chem. 2005, 93, 253–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Yusoff, M.M.; Gordon, M.H.; Ezeh, O.; Niranjan, K. Aqueous enzymatic extraction of Moringa oleifera oil. Food Chem. 2016, 211, 400–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  92. Yusoff, M.M.; Gordon, M.H.; Ezeh, O.; Niranjan, K. High pressure pre-treatment of Moringa oleifera seed kernels prior to aqueous enzymatic oil extraction. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2017, 39, 129–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Vilaseca, M.; López-Grimau, V.; Gutiérrez-Bouzán, C. Valorization of waste obtained from oil extraction in Moringa oleifera seeds: Coagulation of reactive dyes in textile effluents. Materials 2014, 7, 6569–6584. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  94. Nouman, W.; Basra, S.M.A.; Siddiqui, M.T.; Yasmeen, A.; Gull, T.; Alcayde, M.A.C. Potential of Moringa oleifera L. as livestock fodder crop: A review. Turk. J. Agric. For. 2014, 38, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. Abdulkarim, S.M.; Long, K.; Lai, O.M.; Muhammad, S.K.S.; Ghazali, H.M. Frying quality and stability of high-oleic Moringa oleifera seed oil in comparison with other vegetable oils. Food Chem. 2007, 105, 1382–1389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  96. Anwar, F.; Hussain, A.I.; Iqbal, S.; Bhanger, M.I. Enhancement of the oxidative stability of some vegetable oils by blending with Moringa oleifera oil. Food Chem. 2007, 103, 1181–1191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Dollah, S.; Abdulkarim, S.M.; Ahmad, S.H.; Khoramnia, A.; Ghazali, H.M. Physical properties and potential food applications of Moringa oleifera seed oil blended with other vegetable oils. J. Oleo Sci. 2014, 63, 811–822. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  98. Ejigu, A.; Asfaw, A.; Asfaw, N.; Licence, P. Moringa stenopetala seed oil as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production in Ethiopia. Green Chem. 2010, 12, 316–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table
Table 1. Moringa species origin, distribution, preservation status and major uses [1,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28].
Table 1. Moringa species origin, distribution, preservation status and major uses [1,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28].
SpeciesNative ToActual DistributionPreservationMajor Use
M. arborea Verdc.Africa (Kenya)Kenyavulnerablemedicinal
M. borziana MatteiAfrica (Somalia)Kenya, Somaliaendangeredfew studies
M. concanensis NimmoAsia (India)India, Pakistan, Bangladesh multipurpose
M. drouhardii Jum.Africa (Madagascar)Madagascar multipurpose
M. hildebrandtii Engl. Africa (Madagascar)Madagascarendangeredfew studies
M. longituba Engl.Africa (Ethiopia)Kenya, Ethiopia, Somaliaendangeredmedicinal
M. oleifera Lam.Asia (India)subtropical regions worldwide multipurpose
M. ovalifolia Dinter & BergerAfrica (Namibia, Angola)Namibia, Angola ornamental
M. peregrine (Forssk.) FioriAfrica (Horn of Africa, Egypt)Red sea, Arabia, northwest Africaendangered multipurpose
M. pygmaea Verdc.Africa (Somalia)Somalia medicinal (few studies)
M. rivae Chiov.Africa (Kenya and Ethiopia)Kenya, Ethiopiaendangeredmedicinal (few studies)
M. ruspoliana Engl.Africa (Ethiopia)Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia medicinal
M. stenopetala (Bak. f.) Cuf.Africa (Kenya and Ethiopia)Ethiopia, Kenya, Somaliaendangeredmultipurpose
Table
Table 2. Some quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the three most known Moringa species [12,14,23,24,30,31,32,33,34,35].
Table 2. Some quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the three most known Moringa species [12,14,23,24,30,31,32,33,34,35].
ParameterM. oleiferaM. peregrina.M. stenopetala
Tree Height (m)6–126–156–11
Trunk Diameter (cm)20–45170–19060
Branch Length (cm)30–7525025–67
Leaf Length (cm)25–5222–7533–50
Leaflet Length (mm)15–256–813–24
N° Leaflets/Leaf9.7–13.37.0–10.3
Flower Length (cm)25–5222–7533–50
Pod Length (cm)20–603720–40
N° Seeds/Pods12–1811–149–11
Seed Length (cm)0.9–1.61.22.5–3.5
N° of Wings3Not found3
FlowersFragrant, yellowish-whiteFragrant, creamy-whiteWhite
FruitPod-like capsuleElongate capsule3-valve elongated capsule
Pod ColorLight greenWoodyReddish
Pod TypeSimple dry dehiscent legumeSimple dry dehiscent legumeSimple dry dehiscent legume
Seed ShapeOvateGlobus to ovateElliptical
Seed ColorDark brownBrownCreamy
Wing FormPaperyNot foundPapery
Wing ColorWhitishNot foundCreamy
Table
Table 3. Seed characteristics of some Moringa species.
Table 3. Seed characteristics of some Moringa species.
SpeciesWhole Seed Weight (g)Kernel Proportion (%)Oil Content (%)References
M. concanensis0.170–8137.6–40.1[33]
M. drouhardii3.153.222.7[38]
M. hildebrandtii3.953.748.2[38]
M. oleifera0.37528.5–59.8[15,16,38,60]
M. peregrina0.758.633.3–55.7[11,48,60,61]
M. stenopetala0.6–1.164.2–79.731.0–45.0[31,38,62,63,64]
Table
Table 4. Some M. oleifera varieties cultivated worldwide and reported oil yields.
Table 4. Some M. oleifera varieties cultivated worldwide and reported oil yields.
Variety Name Origin/CultivationSeed Oil Content (%)References
JaffnaIndia39[65,66]
MbololoKenya35.7[67]
Periyakalum-1 (PKM-1)India/Argentina, South America33.9–40.8[15,16,68]
Unamed African varietyArgentina33.3–40.7[15]
UnnamedPakistan30.4–40.9[41,69,70]
UnnamedNigeria33–37[71,72]
UnnamedCongo-Brazaville39.3–40.0[73,74]
Unnamed (wild)Malawi41.4[75]
UnnamedMalaysia31[76]
UnnamedBangladesh37.5–40.2[77]
UnnamedBrazil39.0[8]
UnnamedAlgeria27.0–37.4[18]
SupergeniusCuba31.6[78]
Table
Table 5. Seed oil main components of the most known Moringa species [11,18,36,38,48,60,61,62,63,67,70,76,80,81,82,83].
Table 5. Seed oil main components of the most known Moringa species [11,18,36,38,48,60,61,62,63,67,70,76,80,81,82,83].
Parameter (g/100 g)M. oleiferaM. peregrinaM. stenopetalaM. concanensis
Palmitic Acid5.3–10.55.4–12.46.0–6.29.7–11.0
Palmitoleic Acid0.4–5.70.5–3.71.0–1.30.0–2.4
Stearic Acid2.9–11.93.5–7.04.0–7.13.6
Oleic Acid66.5–81.765.4–80.063.0–76.467.3–83.8
Linoleic Acid0.3–1.00.3–0.70.0–0.70.8–1.8
Linolenic Acid0.01–0.20.01–0.20.1–0.2
Arachidic Acid1.7–5.52.1–4.42.3–3.83.3–3.6
Eicosenoic Acid0.1–3.20.1–2.40.8–2.01.7–1.8
Behenic Acid2.9–8.12.4–7.85.3–6.17.0–7.6
Erucic Acid0.02–0.20.01–0.10.6
Tetracosanoic Acid0.4–1.80.5–1.5
Hexacosanoic Acid0.0–1.2 1.4–1.6
Sterols (g/100 g oil)0.25–0.560.210.10–0.58
Vitamin E (mg/100 g)9.0–28.720.0–26.920.2–22.411.5
Oxidative Stability (h, at 110 °C)8–608–3012–369–11

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Boukandoul, S.; Casal, S.; Zaidi, F. The Potential of Some Moringa Species for Seed Oil Production. Agriculture 2018, 8, 150. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8100150

AMA Style

Boukandoul S, Casal S, Zaidi F. The Potential of Some Moringa Species for Seed Oil Production. Agriculture. 2018; 8(10):150. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8100150

Chicago/Turabian Style

Boukandoul, Silia, Susana Casal, and Farid Zaidi. 2018. "The Potential of Some Moringa Species for Seed Oil Production" Agriculture 8, no. 10: 150. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8100150

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop