A Breakthrough in Photocatalytic Wastewater Treatment: The Incredible Potential of g-C3N4/Titanate Perovskite-Based Nanocomposites
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Photocatalytic Wastewater Treatment
2.1. Basic Principles of Photocatalysis
2.2. Advantages of Photocatalytic Wastewater Treatment
2.3. Global Research Trends
3. g-C3N4/TNP Nanocomposite as Photocatalysts
3.1. Overview of g-C3N4
3.2. Overview of TNP Photocatalysts
TNP Type | Synthesis Method | Morphology | Bandgap (eV) | Application | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ZnTiO3, CdTiO3, PbTiO3 | Solid state; solvo-combustion | Irregular | 3.7 4.0 2.75 | H2 production | [88] |
BaTiO3, CaTiO3, SrTiO3 | Solid state | Elongated cylinders; spherical | 2.89 2.92 2.85 | Methyl orange (MO) degradation | [26] |
Na/Fe co-doped BaTiO3 | Solid state | Spherical | 2.3 | RhB, malchite green (MG) degradation | [89] |
SrTiO3 | Sol–gel | Tubular | 3.18 | MO degradation | [90] |
Ag doped ZnTiO3 | Sol–gel | Hexagonal | 3.54–3.50 | MB degradation, antibacterial | [86] |
ZnTiO3 | Sol–gel | Rod | 3.54–3.75 | Amoxicillin (AMX), TC, MO, MB degradation | [78] |
ZnTiO3 | Sol–gel | Spherical | 3.2 | MO degradation | [91] |
La2Ti2O7 | Sol–gel | Large particles | NA | Azophloxine degradation | [79] |
Pt/CaTiO3 | Sol–gel | Cluster | 2.8 | Photoconversion of nitrobenzene (NTB) to aniline | [80] |
SrTiO3 | Hydrothermal | Nanocubes | 3.19 | MB, Tartrazine (TZ) degradation | [81] |
MTiO3 (M = Sr, Ba, Ca) | Hydrothermal | Spherical | 3.0–3.2 | H2 production, MB degradation | [76] |
Bi4Ti3O12 | Hydrothermal | Spherical | 2.79 | MO degradation | [25] |
Au@PbTiO3 | Hydrothermal | Nanoplates | 3.05 | RhB degradation | [92] |
PbTiO3/CdS | Hydrothermal | Rectangular nanoplates | 2.85 (PbTiO3), 2.35 (CdS) | H2 production | [93] |
PbTiO3 | Hydrothermal | Nanoplates | 3.08 | H2 production, RhB, MB, MO degradation | [27] |
Ni@PbTiO3 | Hydrothermal | Nanoplates | 3.07 (PbTiO3), 3.25 (NiO) | RhB degradation | [87] |
PbTiO3 | Hydrothermal | Nanoplates | NA | H2 production | [94] |
Ag doped PbTiO3 | Hydrothermal | Irregular pores or foramen | 3.76–3.38 | MB degradation | [95] |
NaTaO3, SrTiO3 | CVD | Orthorhombic, cauliflower | 3.12–4.01 | H2 production | [96] |
CaTiO3-TiO2 | CVD | Spherical | 3.0 | H2 production | [97] |
MgTi2O5 | CVD | Spherical | 3.4 | PEC water splitting | [98] |
LaPO4/CdS | Self-assembly | Root nodule | NA | CO2 reduction | [82] |
Zn/Cr-LDH-Pb2Nb3O10 | Self-assembly | Nanosheet | NA | O2 production | [99] |
BaxSr1−xTiO3 | Molten salt | Cubic | 3.24 | RhB degradation | [100] |
3.3. Synthesis Routes for g-C3N4/TNP Nanocomposites
3.3.1. Hydrothermal Method
3.3.2. Solid-State/Heat Treatment Method
3.3.3. In Situ Method
3.3.4. Co-Precipitation Method
4. Photocatalytic Mechanism
4.1. Type II Heterojunction
4.2. Z-Scheme Heterojunction
4.3. S-Scheme Heterojunction
4.4. p–n Junction Heterojunction
5. Performance of g-C3N4/TNP Nanocomposites in Wastewater Treatment
6. Factors Affecting g-C3N4/TNP Photocatalytic Performance
6.1. Charge Carrier Separation, Transfer, and Reactive Species Generation
6.2. Catalyst Loading and Dosage
6.3. pH
6.4. Co-Catalysts and Dopants
7. Potential Impact and Significance
7.1. Environmental Impact
7.2. Water Resource Conservation
7.3. Public Health and Safety
7.4. Economic Opportunity
7.5. Technological Advancement
8. Challenges and Future Prospects
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Precursor | Synthesis Method | Morphology | Bandgap (eV) | Application | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Urea | Thermal polymerization | 2D lamellar | NA | Carbamazepine degradation | [46] |
Melamine, NH4Cl | Thermal polymerization | 2D nanosheets | 2.71 | 2,4-Dichlorophenol degradation | [45] |
Melamine | Thermal polymerization | NA | 2.75–2.62 | NA | [47] |
Melamine | Thermal polymerization | 2D nanosheets | 2.6–2.49 | H2 production | [48] |
Urea | Hydrothermal | Nanosheets | 2.58 | Tetracycline (TC) degradation | [51] |
Dicyandiamide | Hydrothermal calcination | Laminated hexagonal prisms | 2.62 | Rhodamine B (RhB) degradation, H2 production | [19] |
Urea | Thermal polymerization | Sheets | 2.8 | CO2 reduction, H2 production | [56] |
Thiourea | Thermal polymerization/Solvothermal | Sheets | 2.76 | H2 production | [49] |
Urea, thiourea | Calcination | Nanoflakes | 2.78–2.89 | RhB degradation | [57] |
2,4,6-Trichloro-1,3,5-triazine, dicyandiamide, acetonitrile | Solvothermal | Spherical | 2.19 | Tetracycline hydrochloride degradation | [50] |
Melamine | Hydrothermal | Nanotubes | 2.70 | NO removal | [52] |
Melamine, ammonium thiosulfate | Hydrothermal | Lamellar | 2.64 | H2 production | [53] |
Melamine | Thermal polymerization/Hydrothermal | NA | 2.3–2.7 | Methylene blue (MB) degradation | [58] |
Melamine, calcium cyanamide | Template assisted | Stacked lamellar | 2.66 | H2 production | [54] |
Urea, glucose, P123 | Template assisted | Curled sheets | NA | Energy storage | [66] |
Dicyandiamide, NaCl | Template assisted | Honeycomb | 2.6 | H2 production | [55] |
Melamine, magadiite | Template assisted | Layered | 2.8 | RhB degradation | [67] |
Melamine, artificial graphite powders | Microwave | Layered | NA | RhB, methyl orange (MO) degradation | [59] |
Melamine, carbon fiber | Microwave | Nanosheets | 2.88 | Field emission | [68] |
Urea | Microwave | Nanosheets | NA | White LED | [69] |
Cyanuric chloride, sodium azide | Microwave | Spherical | 2.41 | NA | [70] |
Thiourea | Microwave | Nanoplates | 2.7–2.61 | Nitrogen photofixation, RhB degradation | [71] |
Citric acid, thiourea | Microwave | NA | NA | Fluorescence probe | [72] |
Photocatalysts | Synthesis Method | Heterojunction Type | Light Source | Photocatalytic Activity/Rate Constant, k (min−1) | Main Active Species | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cr/Nb-modified Bi4Ti3O12/g-C3N4 | Hydrothermal | Z-scheme | 300 W Xe lamp | 98.7% of RhB degradation | ●OH, ●O2− | [31] |
nZVI-doped Al2ZnTiO9/g-C3N4 | Hydrothermal | NA | 70 W Xe arc lamp | 88%, 87%, 80%, 72%, and 90% degradation for methyl orange anion dye, methylene blue cation dye, nitrate, carbon dioxide, and toxic heavy metals, respectively | ●O2−, ●OH | [119] |
g-C3N4/Bi4Ti3O12/Bi4O5I2 | In situ hydrothermal | Z-scheme | 500 W Xe lamp | 87.1% ofloxacin removal | h+, ●OH | [106] |
g-C3N4/Bi4Ti3O12 | Thermal polymerization | Heterostructure | 300 W Xe lamp | 96.99% of RhB. 84.20% of TC, 69.64% Cr(iv) reduction | h+, ●O2− | [109] |
SrTiO3/g-C3N4/Ag | Co-precipitation | Z-scheme | 400 W OSRAM lamp | 100% MB degradation | h+,●O2−, ●OH | [35] |
g-C3N4/Fe2TiO5/Fe2O3 | Hydrothermal | Z-scheme | Sunlight | 96.1% MB degradation (k = 0.009) | ●O2−, ●OH | [37] |
g-C3N4/BaTiO3 | Mixing–calcining | Heterostructure | 100 mW/cm2 xenon lamp equipped | MO degradation | ●O2− | [103] |
g-C3N4/h′ZnTiO3-a′TiO2 | In situ | Z-scheme | 350 W Xe arc lamp | 99.8% MB degradation | ●O2−, ●OH | [105] |
Cr-SrTiO3/g-C3N4 | Solid state | Z-scheme | 500 W Xe lamp | 97% of RhB degradation | h+, ●O2− | [104] |
g-C3N4/SrTiO3 | Sonication mixing | Z-scheme | 2.2 kW Xe lamp, LED flood lamps | MB degradation (k = 0.0220) | ●OH, ●O2− | [121] |
CaTiO3/g-C3N4 | Solid state | Z-scheme | 500W mercury lamp | 92.7% MB, 87.7% levofloxacin degradation | ●OH | [120] |
g-C3N4/Bi4Ti3O12 | Ball milling | p–n junction | 500 W Xe lamp | 87.2% AO-7 degradation | h+, ●O2− | [117] |
CoFe2O4/g-C3N4/Bi4Ti3O12 | Ultrasonic-assisted heat treatment | Z-scheme | 45 W energy-saving lamp | 98.05% degradation of MG | h+, ●O2− | [122] |
Bi4Ti3O12/g-C3N4/BiO5Br | Thermal polymerization | Z-scheme | 65 W energy-saving lamp | 89.84% TC degradation | ●O2− | [123] |
g-C3N4/N-doped LaTiO3 | Solid state | Heterostructure | 100W halogen lamp | 90% of RhB degradation | ●O2−, ●OH | [124] |
CaTiO3/g-C3N4/AgBr | Mixing | Z-scheme | 200 W Xe lamp | 99.6% of RhB degradation | ●O2− | [125] |
g-C3N4/La2Ti2O7 | Wet impregnation | Heterostructure | 400 W Xe lamp | MB degradation | h+, ●O2− | [126] |
SrTiO3/g-C3N4 | Thermal treatment | Heterostructure | Six fluorescent lamps | MB degradation (k = 1.30 × 10−3), amiloride (AML) degradation (k = 1.82 × 10−3) | ●OH | [127] |
Pt/g-C3N4/SrTiO3 | Low-temperature calcination | Z-scheme | 500 W Xe lamp | 93% acid red 1 (AR1) dye degradation | ●O2− | [128] |
FeTiO3/g-C3N4 | self-assembly | S-scheme | 300 W Xe lamp | 92.6% tetracycline hydrochloride degradation | h+, ●O2−, ●OH | [116] |
2D/1D g-C3N4/CaTiO3 | Solvothermal | Heterostructure | 300 W Xe lamp | 99.76% crystal violet (CV) and 95.02% MG degradation | h+, ●O2− | [112] |
g-C3N4/Bi12TiO20 | Annelation | Heterostructure | 500 W Xe lamp | 96.9% of RhB degradation | h+, ●O2− | [113] |
g-C3N4/Bi4Ti3O12 | Mixing–calcining | p–n heterojunction | 200 W Xe lamp | 85.4% RhB degradation | h+, ●O2− | [118] |
SrZnTiO3/g-C3N4 | Mixing–calcining | Z-scheme | 500 W halogen lamp 400 W high pressure mercury lamp | 93.1 and 82.2% removal of indigo carmine (IC) and RhB, respectively | h+,●O2−, ●OH | [129] |
PbTiO3/g-C3N4 | Mixing–calcining | Heterostructure | 300 W UV Xe lamp | RhB degradation (k = 0.1357) | NA | [130] |
g-C3N4/BaTiO3 | Hydrothermal | Heterostructure | 75 W–220 V lamp | 98.72% MB degradation | ●O2−, ●OH | [110] |
NiTiO3@g-C3N4 | Ultrasonic-assisted wet-impregnation | Heterostructure | Direct sunlight | 95−98% photoreduction of toluene to benzoic acid | ●OH | [131] |
La2Ti2O7/C3N4+xHy | Hydrothermal | Heterostructure | 240 W mercury lamp | Degradation of 99, 95 and 93% for RhB, MB, and MO, respectively | h+, ●O2− | [111] |
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Patra, R.; Dash, P.; Panda, P.K.; Yang, P.-C. A Breakthrough in Photocatalytic Wastewater Treatment: The Incredible Potential of g-C3N4/Titanate Perovskite-Based Nanocomposites. Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 2173. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13152173
Patra R, Dash P, Panda PK, Yang P-C. A Breakthrough in Photocatalytic Wastewater Treatment: The Incredible Potential of g-C3N4/Titanate Perovskite-Based Nanocomposites. Nanomaterials. 2023; 13(15):2173. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13152173
Chicago/Turabian StylePatra, Rashmiranjan, Pranjyan Dash, Pradeep Kumar Panda, and Po-Chih Yang. 2023. "A Breakthrough in Photocatalytic Wastewater Treatment: The Incredible Potential of g-C3N4/Titanate Perovskite-Based Nanocomposites" Nanomaterials 13, no. 15: 2173. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13152173