Metabolomics-Based Investigation on the Metabolic Changes in Crassostrea gigas Experimentally Exposed to Galvanic Anodes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Experimental Organisms
2.2. Experimental Setup
2.3. Cathodic Protection
2.4. Chemical Modelling
2.5. Trace Element Assessments
2.5.1. Sampling and Chemical Analysis of Digestive Gland
2.5.2. Chemical Analysis of Passive Samplers
2.5.3. Statistical Analysis
2.6. Metabolomic Sample Analysis
2.6.1. Tissue Sample Preparation
2.6.2. UHPLC/QToF MS Analysis of Samples
2.7. Statistical Analysis
2.8. Metabolite Identification
- -
- Score 1: identification using a standard (same retention times, m/z, and fragments).
- -
- Score 2a: annotation using fragmentation data from all databases proposed by Sirius with an unambiguous spectrum–structure match.
- -
- Score 2b: the fragments obtained match completely with the proposed structure, which excludes other possibilities, but the data are not completely available in the databases.
- -
- Score 3: proposed annotation of one or more isomeric molecules without the possibility of distinguishing between them because few or no fragments were obtained, or the fragments were common to the different positional isomers.
3. Results
3.1. Chemical Modelling of Species, Corresponding to the Degradation Products of the Al-Zn-In- and Zn-Anodes
3.2. Levels of Trace Elements
3.3. LC/MS Data Processing and Analyses
3.4. Metabolites Modulation
3.4.1. Modulations Observed for Zn-Anode Exposed Oysters
3.4.2. Modulations Observed for Al-Zn-In Anode-Exposed Oysters
4. Discussion
4.1. Chemical Modelling and Its Implications
4.2. Bioaccumulation
4.3. Ecotoxicological Effects of Zn- and Al-Zn-In Anodes on Marine Organisms Assessed by Other Methods Than Metabolomics
4.4. Ecotoxicological Effects of Zn- and Al-Zn-In Anodes on Marine Organisms Assessed by Metabolomics in the Present Study
4.4.1. Energy Metabolism
4.4.2. Osmoregulation
4.4.3. Oxidative Stress
4.4.4. Lipid Metabolism
4.4.5. Nucleotide and Nucleoside Metabolism
4.4.6. Amino Acids Metabolism
4.4.7. Defense or Signaling Pathways
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Equilibrium Solid Phase | Amorphous Al(OH)3 | Amorphous Al(OH)3 | Gibbsite | Gibbsite | ε-Zn(OH)2 | ε-Zn(OH)2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | 8.0 | 8.2 | 8.0 | 8.2 | 8.0 | 8.2 |
Dissolved species conc. | 5153 | 8410 | 17 | 26 | 21582 | 9614 |
Main dissolved species | Al(OH)4− | Al(OH)4− | Al(OH)4− | Al(OH)4− | Zn2+ | Zn2+ |
R.A. | 99.4% | 99.6% | 99.45% | 99.65% | 34.3% | 30.7% |
Other dissolved species and R.A. | Al(OH)30 (0.5%) Al(OH)2+ (0.04%) | Al(OH)30 (0.33%) Al(OH)2+ (0.015%) | Al(OH)30 (0.5%) Al(OH)2+ (0.035%) | Al(OH)30 (0.33%) Al(OH)2+ (0.015%) | ZnCl+ (16.9%) ZnOHCl0 (14.0%) Zn(SO4)22− (8.1%) | ZnOHCl0 (19.9%) ZnCl+ (15.1%) Zn(SO4)22− (7.3%) |
µg/Sampler | Control (n = 4) | Al-Zn-In-Anode (n = 4) | Zn-Anode (n = 4) |
---|---|---|---|
Al | <d.l | 148 ± 22 | <d.l |
In | <d.l | <d.l | <d.l |
Zn | <d.l | <d.l | 360 ± 125 |
µg/g Dry Weight (Digestive Gland) | Control (n = 32) | Al-Zn-In-Anode (n = 32) | Zn-Anode (n = 32) |
---|---|---|---|
Al | 39.9 ± 12.1 | 29 ± 12.9 | 28 ± 11.5 |
In | <d.l | <d.l | <d.l |
Zn | 1590 ± 459 | 1348 ± 164 | 1718 ± 271 |
Group | Metabolite | Mode | Retention Time (min) | Formula | Adduct | Monoisotopic Mass (Da) | Observed Mass (m/z) | Theoretical Mass (m/z) | Mass Error (ppm) | Score | Zn2+ Effect | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amino acids and derivatives | Proline | Pos/ Neg | 1.36/1.35 | C5H9NO2 | [M+H]+/[M−H]− | 115.0633 | 116.0712/114.0553 | 116.0706/114.0561 | 5.4/7.0 | 1 | 0.8/0.7 | |
Betaine | Pos | 1.26 | C5H11NO2 | [M+K]+ | 117.0795 | 156.0424 | 156.0432 | 5.6 | 1 | 0.7 | ||
Phenylalanine | Neg | 6.52 | C9H11NO2 | [M−H]− | 165.0795 | 164.0709 | 164.0722 | 8.1 | 1 | 0.8 | ||
Xanthurenic acid/Xanthurinate | Pos/ Neg | 7.42/7.34 | C10H7NO4 | [M+H]+/Isotope of [M−CO2−H]− at 160.0396 | 205.0375 | 206.0454/160.0396 | 206.0448/160.0404 | 3.2/5.2 | 2a | 1.3/2.0 | ||
Oxybetaine | Pos | 1.29 | C6H14NO3+ | [M]+ | 148.0974 | 148.0971 | 148.0974 | 2.1 | 2a | 0.7 | ||
Proline betaine (stachydrine) | Pos | 1.21 | C7H14NO2+ | [M]+ | 144.1019 | 144.1025 | 144.1019 | 3.9 | 2a | 0.7 | ||
Turicine | Pos | 8.67 | C7H13NO3 | [M+H]+ | 159.0895 | 160.0968 | 160.0968 | 0.0 | 2a | 0.8 | ||
Nucleotides and nucleosides | Adenine | Pos/ Neg | 6.79/6.74 | C5H5N5 | [M+H]+/[M−H]− | 135.0545 | 136.0621/134.0463 | 136.0618/134.0472 | 2.5/6.5 | 2a | 0.7/0.6 | |
Adenosine | Pos/ Neg | 6.79/6.74 | C10H13N5O4 | [M+H]+/[M−H]− | 267.0968 | 268.1046/266.0886 | 268.1040/266.0895 | 2.3/3.2 | 2a | 0.8/0.6 | ||
Guanosine | Neg | 6.52 | C10H13N5O5 | [M−H]− | 283.0917 | 282.0839 | 282.0844 | 1.7 | 2a | 1.2 | ||
Carnitine and derivatives | Carnitine | Pos | 1.18 | C7H16NO3+ | [M]+ | 162.1125 | 162.1130 | 162.1125 | 3.3 | 2a | 0.8 | |
3-dehydrocarnitine | Pos | 1.33 | C7H16NO2+ | [M]+ | 146.1176 | 146.1179 | 146.1176 | 2.3 | 2a | 0.8 | ||
Others | Glycerophosphocholine | Pos | 1.21 | C8H20NO6P | [M+H]+ | 257.1028 | 258.1105 | 258.1101 | 1.7 | 2a | 1.4 | |
Trigonelline (gynesine) | Pos | 1.54 | C7H7NO2 | Isotope P+2 of [M+H]+ | 137.0477 | 138.0558 | 138.0550 | 6.1 | 2a | 1.4 | ||
Dodecanedioic acid | Neg | 11.23 | C12H22O4 | [M-2H+Na]− | 230.1518 | 251.1273 | 251.1265 | 3.2 | 2a | 0.4 | ||
Eicosanoid | Neg | 10.85 | C20H32O5 | [M−H]− | 352.2250 | 351.2172 | 351.2177 | 1.5 | 3 | 1.3 |
Group | Metabolite | Mode | Retention Time (min) | Formula | Adduct | Monoisotopic Mass (Da) | Observed Mass (m/z) | Theoretical Mass (m/z) | Mass Error (ppm) | Score | Al-Zn-In Effect | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amino acids and derivatives | Phenylalanine | Neg | 6.52 | C9H11NO2 | [M−H]− | 165.0795 | 164.0709 | 164.0722 | 0.8 | 1 | 0.8 | |
Others | Eicosanoid | Neg | 10.85 | C20H32O5 | Isotope at 351.2166/[M−H]− | 352.2250 | 351.2166 | 351.2177 | 3.1 | 3 | 1.3 |
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Imbert-Auvray, N.; Fichet, D.; Bodet, P.-E.; Ory, P.; Sabot, R.; Refait, P.; Graber, M. Metabolomics-Based Investigation on the Metabolic Changes in Crassostrea gigas Experimentally Exposed to Galvanic Anodes. Metabolites 2023, 13, 869. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13070869
Imbert-Auvray N, Fichet D, Bodet P-E, Ory P, Sabot R, Refait P, Graber M. Metabolomics-Based Investigation on the Metabolic Changes in Crassostrea gigas Experimentally Exposed to Galvanic Anodes. Metabolites. 2023; 13(7):869. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13070869
Chicago/Turabian StyleImbert-Auvray, Nathalie, Denis Fichet, Pierre-Edouard Bodet, Pascaline Ory, René Sabot, Philippe Refait, and Marianne Graber. 2023. "Metabolomics-Based Investigation on the Metabolic Changes in Crassostrea gigas Experimentally Exposed to Galvanic Anodes" Metabolites 13, no. 7: 869. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13070869