Survey of Main Group Metals and Metalloids in Cancer Treatment
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Properties of Metals and Their Significance for Biological Systems
- Tendency to exhibit charge variations: Metal ions exist mainly as positively charged species, although they can form cationic, anionic and neutral species which depends on the coordination environment, which can modify their charges. The positively charged metal ions bind to negatively charged biomolecules in physiological conditions. In the s- and p-block elements of the periodic table, this tendency appears for the IVA (+2, +4), VA (+3, +5) and VIA (+2, +4, +6) groups.
- Chemical bonds and structural geometries: Corresponding to organic biomolecules, metal complex compounds can aggregate to various coordination geometries, giving them unique polyhedral shapes. The bond lengths, bond angles and coordination states can vary; this is contingent on the metal ions and their oxidation states. The variation in the different geometries can also be observed for the s- and p-block elements; see below.
- Metal–bioligand interactions: Different kinds of metal–ligand interactions may exist in the body and these bio-interactions generally initiate complex formations where the properties of obtained complexes are different from those of the free bioligands and metal cations. This characteristic feature is especially pronounced for the metals and metalloids from the s- and p-blocks of the periodic table.
- Features of the acid–base properties: Characterized by high electron affinity and a large set of oxidation states, most metal cations can readily polarize the coordinated functional groups, therefore facilitating the hydrolysis processes. The oxidation states dramatically affect the acid–base properties. These alterations with the variations in the oxidation states are specifically pronounced in p-elements; for instance, selenium and tellurium occur in different chemical forms with varied bioactivity: selenates (SeO42−, HSeO4−, H2SeO4), selenides (H2Se, HSe−), selenites (SeO32−, HSeO3−, H2SeO3), parts of many enzymes and the tellurium oxyanions tellurite (TeO32−) and tellurate (TeO42−).
- Partially filled d-shells: For transition metals, the variable number of electrons in the d- or f-shell (for lanthanides and actinides) impacts the magnetic and electronic properties of the resulting metal complexes. Due to the incompleteness of d- and f-shells and the presence of energetically similar unfilled shells, d- and f-elements are predisposed to complexation reactions in which the complex compounds formed are usually colored and paramagnetic. When moving along a large period, an increase in the ability to chelate in both directions toward the center of the period is clearly observed and maximal complexation capacity is typical for the VIIIB group metals (Fe, Co, Ni, Pt, etc.), elements with unfilled d-subshells.
- Tendency to exhibit oxidation–reduction properties: Many transition metals are strong reducing agents with a strong predisposition to undergoing oxidation–reduction reactions. Their reducing capacity is determined by the electronic configuration structures and the size of the respective cations. Only heavy metals of the VIIIB and IB groups are termed noble because of their inertness. The oxidation states of metal cations are responsible for the modulation and the rational design of bio-coordination compounds. In biochemical redox catalytic reactions, metal cations are activators of the coordinated substrates. Compounds of p-block metals in the maximal oxidation state possess oxidative properties.
3. s-Elements and Their Compounds in Cancer Chemotherapy
4. p-Elements and Their Compounds as Anticancer Chemotherapeutics
4.1. Gallium
4.2. Indium
4.3. Thallium
4.4. Germanium
4.5. Tin
4.6. Lead
4.7. Arsenic
4.8. Antimony
4.9. Bismuth
4.10. Selenium
4.11. Tellurium
4.12. Astatine
5. Conclusions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Element | Location and Biofunctions | Compounds with Anticancer Activity | Toxicity, Antidotes | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cesium | 134Cs and 137Cs—radioactive pollutants | 131Cs—in brachytherapy and oncology for prostate cancer | Low abundance, insignificant influence | [14] |
Strontium | In bone tissue affecting bone formation; 90Sr disturbs bone marrow hematopoiesis | Strontium-89—β-emitter in therapy for breast and metastatic prostate cancer | Brittle bones, Sr rickets, extracting Sr from bones is impossible | [15,16,17,18,19] |
Radium | 223Ra2+ is a Ca2+-mimetic | 223Ra—α-emitter for bone metastases and prostate cancer | Ultratrace amounts in human body | [20,21,22,23,24] |
Gallium | Ga3+—metabolism stimulator; anticancer, antibacterial, anti-inflammation; Fe3+-mimetic | Ga(NO3)3 in treatment of cancer-related hypercalcemia, 68Ga-, 67Ga-scintigraphy of malignant tumors, incl. Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas | Particularly nontoxic | [25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41] |
Indium | In3+—metabolism stimulator; 111In—radiotracer for tagging red, white blood cells and proteins | 111In—γ-emitter in radiopharmaceuticals for neuroendocrine and prostate cancer | Damages kidneys; low abundance, insignificant influence | [42,43,44,45,46] |
Thallium | Tl causes mitochondrial and energy production damages; interferes with K+ pathways | 205Tl—in NMR detection, 201Tl—in SPECT for perfusion tests of myocardium in diagnostics of heart attacks and coronary artery disease | Toxic metal; antidotes—dialysis and Prussian Blue in colloid solutions | [47,48,49,50] |
Germanium | Improves immunity, removes toxins, controls pain, antitumor | Tumor prevention; Ge-132—in cancer and cardiovascular therapy | Ge compounds with low solubility are not toxic to human cells | [51,52,53,54,55,56,57] |
Tin | Stimulating growth effect; easily enters the bloodstream | Photodynamic therapy agent Purlytin for cutaneous cancer, Kaposi’s sarcoma, AIDS, breast metastases | Low-abundance nontoxic metal; toxic organotins | [58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65] |
Lead | In erythrocytes; contributes to other metals’ toxicity; disturbs nervous system | 212Pb (β−emission) in radioimmunotherapy, 212Pb-TCMC-trastuzumab—antitumor agent | Saturnism; Pb2+ binds SH-groups; Antidotes—CaNa2EDTA, dimercaprol | [66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74] |
Arsenic | In the brain and muscle tissues, contributes to hemoglobin synthesis | As2O3—for promyelocytic leukemia; Darinaparsin—anticancer therapeutic | Toxic metal—arsenolysis; antidotes—Na2S2O3, dimercaprol, DMPS, DMSA | [75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84] |
Bismuth | In kidneys; inhibits enzymes amino- and carboxy-polypeptidaze | 213Bi (α-emitter); 213Bi-lintuzumab for α-targeted radiotherapy in patients with AML; Bi2O3—shielding γ-rays | Nontoxic with reversible toxicity; antidotes— D-penicillamine | [85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102] |
Selenium | In small amounts is vital for normal growth and metabolism; in selenoproteins | Cancer-preventing; selenomethionine and Se-methyl-seleno-L-cysteine for treatment of prostate cancer | Selenosis; toxic selenites and selenates | [103,104,105,106] |
Tellurium | Constantly in the human body; its biofunctions are not clear | Te(IV) nontoxic compound AS101—for AML chemotherapy—antiapoptotic | Toxic volatile compounds—in glutathione metabolism | [107,108,109] |
Astatine | Short-lived At radioisotopes; in spleen, thyroid gland and lungs | 221At, 222At, 223At (α-emitters); 211At in therapy of CNS and malignant brain tumors | Analogous to iodine; thyrotoxicosis | [110,111,112,113,114,115] |
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Kostova, I. Survey of Main Group Metals and Metalloids in Cancer Treatment. Inorganics 2024, 12, 29. https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics12010029
Kostova I. Survey of Main Group Metals and Metalloids in Cancer Treatment. Inorganics. 2024; 12(1):29. https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics12010029
Chicago/Turabian StyleKostova, Irena. 2024. "Survey of Main Group Metals and Metalloids in Cancer Treatment" Inorganics 12, no. 1: 29. https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics12010029