The 3D Printing of Nanocomposites for Wearable Biosensors: Recent Advances, Challenges, and Prospects
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Nanocomposites
2.1. Polymer Matrix Nanocomposites (PMNCs)
2.2. Ceramic Matrix Nanocomposites (MMNCs)
2.3. Metal Matrix Nanocomposites (MMNCs)
3. Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing) Processes
4. Recent Progress in Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing) of Wearable Biosensors
4.1. Electrocardiogram (ECG) Biosensors
4.2. Electroencephalogram (EEG) Biosensors
4.3. Blood Pressure Biosensors
4.4. Glucose Biosensors
4.5. Oxygen Saturation (SpO2) Biosensors
4.6. Sweat Biosensors
4.7. Tactile Biosensors
4.8. Respiratory Biosensors
4.9. A Comparison of 3D-Printed Wearable Biosensors with Traditional Wearable Biosensors
5. Challenges
6. Prospects
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Company | Model | Analyte | Measuring Range (mM) |
---|---|---|---|
Yellow Springs Instruments, Yellow Springs, OH, USA | 23 A 13 L | Glucose Lactate | 1–45 0–15 |
Zentrum für Wissenschaftlichen Geratebau, Berlin, Germany | Gluco- meter | Glucose Uric acid | 0.5–50 0.1–1.2 |
Abbott, Abbott Park, Illinois, USA | FreeStyle InsuLinx | Glucose, insulin | 20–500 mg/dL |
Lifestream cholesterol monitor Alcosan saliva alcohol dipstick | i-STAT PCA | Glucose Urea nitrogen, Cl, K, Na+, hematocrit blood gases | 20–700 mg/dL - |
DEX blood glucose meter | Bio-scanner 2000 | Glucose, cholesterol, HDL, blood ketone, triglyceride | 55–230 mg/dL - |
Germaine Laboratories, Inc., San Antonio, TX, USA | AimStrip hemoglobin meter | Hemoglobin | 5.6 to 23.5 g/dL |
Class | Examples | Properties |
---|---|---|
Polymer | Thermoplastics/layered silicates/thermoset polymers, polymer/CNT, polyester/TiO2, polymer/layered double hydroxides. | Enhanced electrical conductivity and colloidal stability, biodegradability |
Ceramic | Al2O3/CNT Polymer, Al2O3/TiO2, SiO2/Ni, Al2O3/SiC, Al2O3/SiO2 | High toughness and superior failure properties |
Metal | Fe-Cr/Al2O3, Al/CNT, Mg/CNT, Co/Cr, Fe/MgO, Ni/Al2O3 | Strong ductility and excellent shear/compression practices |
Process | Technology | Materials | Minimum Layer Resolution | Max Build Volume (LxWxH-mm3) and Applications |
---|---|---|---|---|
Vat photopolymerization | Stereolithography (SLA) Digital light processing (DLP) Continuous liquid interface production (CLIP) Scan, spin, and selectively photocure (3SP) | Photopolymers | 50–100 µm 25–150 µm 50–100 µm 25–100 µm | 1500 × 750 × 550 192 × 120 × 230 190 × 112 × 325 266 × 175 × 193 Rapid prototypes, tooling, end-user parts, and mold patterns. |
Extrusion-based systems | Fused deposition modeling (FDM) | Thermoplastics (PLA, ABS, HIPS, Nylon, PC) | 10–100 µm | 1500 × 1100 × 1500 Spare parts, automotive, testing tool designs, and jigs |
Powder bed fusion | Selective laser sintering (SLS) Electron beam melting (EBM) Selective laser melting (SLM) Selective heat sintering (SHS) Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) | Polymers, metals and ceramic powder | 80 µm 70 µm 20–50 µm 100 µm 20–40 µm | 381 × 330 × 460 6096 × 1194 × 1524 300 × 300 × 300 160 × 140 × 150 250 × 250 × 325 Aerospace, automotive, dental, rapid prototyping, and jewelry |
Material jetting | Multi-jet modeling, drop-on-demand, thermo-jet printing, and inkjet printing | Polymers, plastics, and waxes | 13 µm | 300 × 185 × 200 Casting patterns, prototypes, and electronics |
Binder jetting | 3D printing | Polymers, waxes, metals, and foundry sand | 90 µm | 2200 × 1200 × 600 Prototypes, casting patterns, and molds |
Directed energy deposition | Laser engineering net shape (LENS) | Metals | 50–100 µm | 1500 × 1500 × 2100 Aerospace, military, repair metal objects and satellites |
Sheet lamination processes | Laminated Object manufacturing (LOM) | Metals, paper, plastic film | 100 µm | 256 × 169 × 150 Prototypes, plastic parts, and end-user parts |
Methods | Biomarker | Sensor Structures (3D and Non-3D) | Detection Range | LoD | Sensing Capabilities and Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
3D printing (SLA) | Prostate-specific antigen | 3D-printed channels; immunoarray | 0.5 pg mL−1 to 5 ng mL−1 | 0.5 pg mL−1 | Customizability and rapid prototyping capability. Automated detection system and assay time ≈ 30 min. Accuracy comparable with ELISA and commercial devices such as Abbott Diagnostics (0.008 ng mL−1), Roche (0.002 ng mL−1), Beckman Coulter (0.008 ng mL−1), and Diagnostic Products Corporation (0.04 ng mL−1) |
Commercial SPR biochip (TRD) | Self-assembled monolayered Au | 1–1000 ng mL−1 | 18.1 ng mL−1 | Assay time ≈ 14 min. Sensing with buffer solution and human serum | |
Microfabrication (TRD) | Self-assembled monolayered Au | 0–4 µg mL−1 | 0.2 µg mL−1 | Single-use biosensor, sensing with serum samples and good sensitivity | |
3D printing (AJP) | Dopamine | Micropillar array electrode | 100 am–1 mm | am | Low LoD ≈ 500 attomoles, breaking the barrier described in the literature [47] through multi-length-scale electrode structure. Rapid prototyping capability and waste minimization due to the small microfluidic volume required for testing. |
3D printing (2PP) | 3D carbon electrode | 0.5–100 µm | nm | High sensitivity to multiple neurochemicals, high reproducibility, and capability for both in vitro and in vivo. | |
Lithography (TRD) | Graphene | 0.5–120 µm | nm | Good sensitivity in urine samples | |
Screen-printed electrode (TRD) | Conducting polymer–Pd composite | 0.1 to 200 μm | nm | In vitro sensing capabilities | |
3D printing (AJP) | Glucose | Polymer nanocomposite | 0–10 mm | 6.9 μm | Multimaterial printing, customizability, and rapid prototyping. High sensitivity. |
3D printing (Inkjet printing) | PEDOT.PSS | 0.25–0.9 mm | μm | Rapid, fully printed, and customizable biosensor. Noninvasive, good sensitivity in saliva, stability ≈ 1 month, and response time ≈ 1 min | |
Electrodeposition (TRD) | MnO2/MWCNTs | 10μm–28 mm | μm | Low-potential, stable, and fast detection time | |
3D printing (SLM) | Ascorbic acid | Au electrode | 0.1–1 mm | 2.1 μm | Multimaterial printing and rapid prototyping. |
Glassy carbon electrode (TRD) | Carbon nanoplatelets | 0.1 µm–1.8 mm | 1.09 μm | Sensing ability with soft drinks, orange juice, and urine. | |
Lithography (TRD) | Indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode | 0.058 to 0.71 mm | 8.4 μm | Response time ≈ 40 s, shelf life ≈ 1.5 months |
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Parupelli, S.K.; Desai, S. The 3D Printing of Nanocomposites for Wearable Biosensors: Recent Advances, Challenges, and Prospects. Bioengineering 2024, 11, 32. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11010032
Parupelli SK, Desai S. The 3D Printing of Nanocomposites for Wearable Biosensors: Recent Advances, Challenges, and Prospects. Bioengineering. 2024; 11(1):32. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11010032
Chicago/Turabian StyleParupelli, Santosh Kumar, and Salil Desai. 2024. "The 3D Printing of Nanocomposites for Wearable Biosensors: Recent Advances, Challenges, and Prospects" Bioengineering 11, no. 1: 32. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11010032