Fermented Foods of Korea and Their Functionalities
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Traditional Fermented Foods in Korea
2.1. Representative Traditional Korean Fermented Foods
2.1.1. Kimchi
2.1.2. History of Kimchi
2.1.3. Types of Kimchi
2.1.4. Preparation of Kimchi
2.2. Jang (Fermented Soybean Products)
2.2.1. Production of Meju (a Brick of Fermented Soybeans)
2.2.2. Ganjang
2.2.3. Doenjang
2.2.4. Gochujang
2.2.5. Cheonggukjang
2.2.6. Other Products
2.3. Jeotgal
2.3.1. History of Jeotgal
2.3.2. Types of Jeotgal [28]
2.3.3. Manufacturing Method and Ingredients of Jeotgal
2.4. Vinegar
2.4.1. History of Vinegar
2.4.2. Types of Vinegar
2.4.3. How to Make Vinegar [37]
2.4.4. Acetic Acid Bacteria
2.4.5. Vinegar Fermentation and Ripening Methods [38]
2.4.6. Ingredients of Fermented Vinegar
3. Health Benefits of Korean Fermented Foods
3.1. Hypertension
3.2. Obesity
3.3. Diabetes Mellitus
3.4. Regulation of Lipid Profile
3.5. Impact of Fermented Foods on Nutrients, Gut Microbiome, and Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
3.6. Anticancer, Anti-Mutation, and Anti-Inflammation Properties of Fermented Foods
3.7. Influence of Fermented Foods on Immunity, Immune Respose, and Allergic Response
3.8. Influence of Fermented Foods on Oxidative Stress, Aging, and Memory Function
3.9. Anti-Fatigue and Hangover Relief by Fermented Foods
4. Conclusions and Future Approach
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Contribution | Jeotgal (Liquid Type) | Ganjang (Soybean) | |
---|---|---|---|
Range | Average | ||
pH | 5.3–6.7 | 6.0 | 4.7–4.9 |
Salt | 22.5–29.9 | 26.2 | 16.0–18.0 |
Total amino acid | 2.9–7.7 | 5.3 | 5.5–7.8 |
Glutamic acid | 0.38–1.32 | 0.85 | 0.9–1.3 |
Total organic acid | 0.21–2.33 | 1.27 | 1.4–2.1 |
Acetic acid | 0–2.00 | 0.87 | 0.1–0.3 |
Lactic acid | 0.06–0.48 | 0.27 | 1.2–1.6 |
Succinic acid | 0.02–0.18 | 0.10 | 0.04–0.05 |
Reducing sugar | Trace | Trace | 1.0–3.0 |
Ethanol | Trace | Trace | Trace |
Category Used | Ingredient | Applied Disease |
---|---|---|
Ancient Assyrian | Vinegar | Ear infection |
Ancient Persian | Citrus, lime vinegar | Reduce body fat |
Greek, Roman | Vinegar | Digestive stimulant, scurvy |
Spartan | Vinegar | Stamina replenishment |
Middle Ages | Herb (lavender, rosemary) vinegar | Upset stomach, headache |
Garenos | Honey, vinegar | Couch |
British | Vinegar | Mouthwash |
Hippocrates | Vinegar, honey, pepper | Expectorant action, female disease |
Egypt | Vinegar | Beauty, poor eating |
Division | Raw Material and Usage | Product Type | Market |
---|---|---|---|
Seasoning vinegar | Seasoning for cooking Produced by alcohol fermentation or dilute glacial acetic acid | Brewed vinegar, apple vinegar, synthetic acetic acid | Large company occupies large portion Some special products produced by small manufacturer |
Vinegar for health | Low concentration of acid for direct drinking or drink after dilution Use grains, persimmon, grape, and other fruits | Fruit vinegar (persimmons, grapes, etc.) and brown rice | New market is formed by some manufacturer |
Fermented Products | Functionality | Study Types | Consumption | Health Effects of Fermented Foods | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
LAB (lactic acid bacteria) isolated from kimchi | Oxidative stress | In vitro | Lactobacillus sp. (L. sakei JK-17) | • Radical scavenging activity, DPPH, ABTS radical • L. sakei JK-17 culture depleted nitrite concentration 94.75% | [40] |
LAB kimchi | Anti-bacterial | In vitro | Lactobacillus planetarium (KC23) | • L. plantarum KC23 exhibited antibacterial activity as it formed a clear zone of 8–13 mm for the 5 pathogens | [41] |
LAB kimchi | Anti-bacterial | In vitro | Leuconostoc sp.; lactic acid bacteria isolated from kimchi (KLAB) | • Raw 264.7 macrophages: effective for the generation of NO, TNF-α, and IL-6 in macrophage | [42] |
LAB kimchi | Mutagenicity/toxicity | In vitro | Lactobacillus sp. (kimchi Lactobacillus strains) | • Nitrite depletion, aflatoxin binding | [43] |
LAB kimchi | Diabetes | In vitro | Leuconostoc sp. (meenteroides KFRI73007) (Lactic acid bacteria isolated from kimchi) | • Lower β-glucosidase activity | [44] |
LAB kimchi | Skin protection | In vivo | Hairless mouse: Lactobacillus (lyophilized Korean cabbage kimchi, mustard leaf kimchi, and Buchu kimchi) | • Skin pH improvement • Chlorophyll contents in buchu and mustard leaf kimchi were higher than cabbage kimchi. Contents of carotene and ascorbic acid were higher in the mustard leaf kimchi | [45] |
Kimchi | Serum lipids and blood glucose | RCT | Male and female, n = 100; High-kimchi (210 g/d)-intake vs. low-kimchi (50 g/d)-intake groups; 7 days | • TC and LDL-C were significantly decreased in the high-kimchi-intake group • Fasting blood glucose was significantly decreased in the high-kimchi-intake group as compared to the low-intake group | [46] |
Kimchi | Anti-atherosclerosis | RCT | Male and female, n = 12; kimchi pill; 3 g/day; 6 weeks | • Lower TG, LDL/HDL-C, and atherogenic indexes | [47] |
Kimchi | Intestinal microbiota | RCT | Female, n = 12; kimchi; 150 g/day; 7 days | • Beneficial effects the formation of intestinal microbiota | [48] |
Kimchi | Intestinal microbiota | RCT | Male and female, n = 10; kimchi; 200 g/day; 4 weeks | • Intake of 200 g of kimchi per day for four weeks in adults is known to lower the concentrations of β-glucosidase and β-glucuronidase that cause colon cancer | [49] |
Kimchi | Iron status | RCT | Male, n = 12; kimchi, 300 g/day; 4 weeks | • Lower serum iron and serum ferritin | [50] |
Kimchi | Intestinal microbiota | RCT | Female, n = 24, obese women, fermented kimchi, 180 g/day, 8 weeks | • Beneficial effects of blood gene expression and gut microbial population ⇨Kimchi intake was accompanied by a decrease in genus Blautia and an increase in Prevotella and Bacteroides in the gut microbial population | [51] |
Kimchi | Obesity metabolic parameters | RCT | Male and female, n = 22; overweight and obese adults; fermented kimchi; 300 g/day, 4 weeks | • Lower systolic and diastolic blood pressures, percent body fat, fasting glucose, and TC, compared with the fresh kimchi | [52] |
Kimchi | Metabolic parameters | RCT | Male and female, n = 21; pre-diabetic men and women; fermented kimchi; 100 g/day; 8 weeks | • Effects BP and insulin-resistance sensitivity • Decreased body weight, BMI, and waist circumference Fermented kimchi decreased insulin resistance and increased insulin sensitivity • Decreased systolic and diastolic blood pressures | [53] |
Kimchi | Metabolic parameters | RCT | Female, n = 38; obese middle-school girls; fermented kimchi capsules; 3 g/day; 6 weeks | • Lower weight, BMI, fat mass, abdominal fat, TC, LDL-C, and TG | [54] |
Kimchi | Metabolic parameters | RCT | Male and female, n = 39; functional kimchi (FK) vs. standardized kimchi (SK); 210 g/d; 4 weeks | • FK: lower IL-6, MCP-1 • FK: lower TG, TC, LDL-C, and higher HDL-C • FK and SK: increased adiponectin • FK: reduced the abundance of Firmicutes, but increased levels of Bacteroidetes | [55] |
Kimchi | Immunomodulation | RCT, open | Male and female, n = 39; Chinese college students; fermented kimchi; 100 g/day; 4 weeks | • No effects on immunomodulatory functions | [56] |
Kimchi | Irritable bowel syndrome | RCT, placebo | Male and female, n = 90; subjects of IBS symptoms; functional kimchi (FK) vs. standardized kimchi (SK) vs. dead nano-sized Lactobacillus plantorumnF1(nLp) added to standard kimchi; 210 g/d; 12 weeks | • All groups: increase in TNF-α • Serum IL-4, IL-10, and IL-12 levels significantly reduced in the nLp SK and FK groups • All groups: lower β-glucosidase and β-glucuronidase of fecal matter • Gut microbiome: increased Firmicutes populations at the expense of Bacteroidetes. • FK: acterium adolescentis population increased | [57] |
Kimchi | Hypertension | Cross-sectional study | Korean adults n = 5932 (male: 2822, female: 3820) Age: 19–64 y | • Higher consumption of kimchi was not associated with a higher prevalence of hypertension (odds ratio = 0.87; 95% CI = 0.70–1.08 for ≥216.5 g/day vs. <39.2 g/day; p = 0.753) • High consumption of kimchi was not associated with an increased prevalence of hypertension in humans | [58] |
Kimchi | Hypertension | Cohort study (a 12-year follow-up study) | Korean adults n = 5932 (male: 2822, female: 3110) Age: 40–69 y | • High kimchi consumption was not shown to be associated with increased risk of hypertension | [59] |
Kimchi | Asthma | Cross-sectional study | Korean adults n = 19,659 (male: 7787, female: 11,872) Age: 19–64 y | • A significant inverse relationship between kimchi consumption and the prevalence of asthma •The prevalence of asthma in Korean adults was 2.4%. Adults with asthma consumed lower amounts of kimchi | [60] |
Kimchi | Atopic dermatitis (AD) | Cross-sectional study | Korean adults n = 7222 (male: 50.9%, female: 49.1%) Age: 19–49 y | • Decreased odds ratio (OR) of having AD according to kimchi consumption • Consuming 85.0–158 g/day of kimchi significantly associated with a lower presence of AD | [61] |
Kimchi | Rhinitis | Cross-sectional study | Korean adults n = 7494 Age: 19–64 y | • The prevalence of rhinitis decreased with increased kimchi consumption • The quintile 4 (range of kimchi intake: 108~180 g) groups, compared with the reference of quintile 1 (0~23.7 g), showed a decrease of 18.9% | [62] |
Kimchi | Lipids profiles | Cross-sectional study | Korean adults n = 102 (male) Age: 40–64 y | • Kimchi consumption positively correlated with HDL-C and negatively correlated with LDL-C | [63] |
Kimchi | Anti-oxidant | Cross-sectional study | Korean adult total: n = 335 Age (20–29 y): n = 146 (male: 55, female: 91) Age (65): n = 189 (male: 89, female: 100) | • The correlation coefficient between kimchi intake and total free radicals was 0.1862 (negative correlation) and that for GSH/GSSG was 0.1861 (positive correlation). | [64] |
Ganjang | Hypertension | In vivo | SD rat: Fermented ganjang (salt 8%; GJ) General salt (table salt 8%; NC) | • Decreased blood pressure • The serum renin levels decreased in the GJ group compared to the control group, while the serum aldosterone level decreased in the GJ group relative to the NC group | [65] |
Ganjang | Cancer | In vivo | C57 BL/6J mice Ganjang (Korean soy sauce), including acid-hydrolyzed soy sauce (AHSS), fermented soy sauce (FSS), and fermented sesame sauce (FSeS) | • Increase in immune cytokines • FSeS and FSS: decreased the serum levels of TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-6, and IL-17α. mRNA expression • FSeS: anti-colitis effect partially by reducing the serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and inhibiting mRNA expression | [66] |
Cancer | In vitro | Colorectal cancer: fermented soy sauce with added sesame seeds | • Increased the expression of colonic p53 • Tumor-suppressor gene indicating stronger anticancer effects | [67] | |
Ganjang | Antithrombotic | In vitro | Bacterial strains exhibiting fibrinolytic activity screened from traditional Korean soybean sauce | • Decrease in fibrinolytic activity | [68] |
Ganjang | Antioxidant | In vivo | Wistar rats (rats fed high-PUFA oils) | • Protective effect of fatty acid oxidation | [69] |
Ganjang | Immune/anti-inflammation | In vivo | RAW 264.7 cell and ICR mouse (polysaccharides isolated from commercial soy sauce (CSP-0) vs. traditional Korean soy sauce (KTSP-0)) | • Both CSP-0 and KTSP-0 showed significantly higher IL-6 production rates than that of the untreated or CSP-0 groups. Decreased inflammation cytokines • KTSP-0 administration augmented IL-6 content in mouse sera, whereas CSP-0 did not show any effect on IL-6 induction | [70] |
Ganjang | Antibacterial | In vitro | Streptococcus spp. causing dental caries in Korean soy sauce (NG 06 strain isolated from ganjang) | • Increased antimicrobial activity • The isolate NG 16 strain was confirmed as Gram-positive, rods, endospore production, utilization of melibiose, casein hydrolysis and starch hydrolysis | [71] |
Doenjang | Cancer | In vivo | Balb/c mice (sarcoma-180 cell-transplanted mice) ⇨Doenjang fermented for 3, 6, and 24 months | • Increase in metastasis and natural killer cell activity (doenjang fermented for 24 months exhibited a two-to-three-fold increase in antitumor effects on sarcoma-180-injected mice and antimetastatic effects in colon 26-M 3.1 cells in mice compared with the 3- or 6-month-fermented doenjang) | [72] |
Doenjang | Hypertension | In vitro | 3T3-l1 adipocyte cells (treated with doenjang and RAS blockers, losartan (10−4 M) and captopril (10−4 M) were treated as positive controls, which suppresses AGT1R and ACE) | • Decrease in regulated RAS activity • Doenjang: decrease in ACE and angiotensin II receptor 2 (AGTR2) levels | [73] |
Doenjang | Hypertension | In vivo | SD rats Fermented doenjang (salt 8%) General salt (table salt 8%) | • Increase in ACE-inhibitor activity | [74] |
Doenjang | Antithrombotic | In vitro | Manufacturing method for traditional doenjang and screening of high-fibrin-clotting-inhibitory samples | • Regulation of fibrinolysis, fibrinogen clotting inhibition | [75] |
Doenjang | Obesity | In vivo | C57BL/6N SD rats (fed basal (BA) (5% fat), high-fat (HF) diet (30% fat), HF + steamed soybeans (SOY), or HF diet + doenjang (DJ) ad libitum, 8 weeks | • DJ: decrease in visceral fat accumulation, adipocyte size • DJ: decrease in obesity gene expression (lowered the atherogenic index and serum leptin level) | [76] |
Doenjang | Obesity | RCT, placebo | Overweight women (n = 51) 12 weeks, 9.8 g/day | • Decrease in body weight, body fat, and visceral fat | [77] |
Doenjang | Obesity | RCT, placebo | Overweight women with the PPAR-γ2C1431T polymorphism (n = 51), 12 weeks, 9.8 g/day | • Decrease in visceral fat • Increase in antioxidant activity | [78] |
Doenjang | Obesity | RCT, placebo | Overweight women with UCP-1polymorphism (n = 51), 12 weeks, 9.8 g/day | • Decrease in visceral fat • Increase in lipolysis, free fatty acid | [79] |
Doenjang | Immune/anti-inflammation | In vivo | Male C57BL/6J mice: low-fat diet (LF), high-fat diet (HF), or a high-fat diet containing doenjang (DJ), or a high-fat diet containing steamed soy bean (SS) for 11 weeks | • Cytokine level regulation • Decrease in inflammation cytokine expression (reduced mRNA levels of oxidative stress markers, pro-inflammatory adipokines, macrophage, and a fibrosis marker) | [80] |
Doenjang | Cognitive function (brain neuroprotection) | In vivo | C57BL/6J mice: a low-fat diet, HF diet, HF diet containing steamed soybean, or an HF diet containing doenjang (DJ), 11 weeks | • Doenjang: lowered β-amyloid peptide levels by regulating gene expressions involved in β-amyloid peptide production and degradation • Effectiveness of brain nerve protection | [81] |
Doenjang | Anti-oxidant | In vivo | Commercial doenjang vs. traditional doenjang | •Traditional doenjang: increase in antioxidant enzyme activities and decrease in ROS level (radical scavenging activity: DPPH, ABTS, and TBARS) | [82] |
Doenjang | Skin (whitening action) | In vitro | Melanin cell: o-Dihydroxy isoflavone derivatives in long-aged doenjang | • Decrease in o-Dihydroxy isoflavone derivative tyrosinase activity • Decrease in melanin formation | [83,84] |
Gochujang | Cancer | In vitro | Traditional kochujang added to garlic porridge | • Decrease in cancer cell viability • Increase inf anticancer activity | [85] |
Gochujang | Obesity | In vivo | Gochujang products prepared using rice koji and soybean meju | • Improved lipid profiles: lower TG • Decrease in obesity gene expression, body weight gains, epididymis fat weights ⇨ Inhibition of lipogenic enzyme’s fatty acid synthase, malic enzyme, and lipoprotein lipase by gochujang products in epididymis adipose tissues, and inhibition of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in the liver | [86] |
Gochujang | Obesity | RCT, placebo | Overweight women (n = 53), 12 weeks, 32 g/day | • Decrease in visceral fat • Decrease in serum TG and Apo B | [87] |
Gochujang | Obesity | RCT, placebo | Overweight and obese adults n = 60, 3 weeks High dose of beneficial microbes of traditional kochujang (HTK) Low dose of beneficial microbes of traditional kochujang (LTK) Commercial kochujang (CK), 25.3 g (powder 19 g) | • HTK, CK group: decrease in WC • HTK, LTK group: decrease in TC, LDL-C, HDL-C, and TG • HTK: decrease in visceral fat • All groups: increase in beneficial microorganisms | [88] |
Gochujang | Obesity | RCT, placebo | Overweight women with the PPAR-γ2C1431T polymorphism (n = 53), 12 weeks, 32 g/day | • Anti-obesity effects | [89] |
Gochujang | Diabetic | In vivo | 90% pancreatectomies diabetic rats | • Blood glucose regulation | [90] |
Gochujang | Anti-atherosclerosis | RCT, placebo | Adult with hyperlipidemia (n = 30), 12 weeks, 35 g/day | • Decrease in TC and LDL-C • Increase in HDL-C | [91] |
Gochujang | Immune | In vivo | Balb/c mice (RAW 264.7 cell) | • Improved immune cytokines | [92] |
Cheonggukjang. | Digestibility (absorption) | RCT, placebo, Cross-over | Healthy adult (n = 10) Fermented soybean (FS) or non-fermented soybean (NFS) consumption, fresh chungkookjang, 1 day, 35 g/day | • Increase in serum isoflavone’s absorption • Increase in bioavailability | [93] |
Cheonggukjang. | Bone | In vivo | SD rat: Rubus coreanus-cheonggukjang (RC-CGJ), general cheonggukjang (CGJ), control group, 9 weeks | • Increase in spine bone mineral density (significantly higher in the RC-CGJ and CGJ groups) | [94] |
Cheonggukjang. | Anti-atherosclerosis | In vivo | Recombinant cheonggukjang kinase (CGK) 3–5-rich fraction as a thrombolytic agent, which we overexpressed in Bacillus licheniformis ATCC10716 | • Fibrinogen clotting inhibition (CGK3–5-rich fraction inhibited collagen-induced platelet aggregation in platelet-rich plasma in a concentration-dependent manner) | [95] |
Cheonggukjang. | Anti-atherosclerosis | RCT, placebo, cross-over | Overweight adults (n = 83), 12 weeks, 35 g/day | • Male: increase in Apo A1 • Female: decrease n Apo B | [96] |
Cheonggukjang. | Anti-atherosclerosis | RCT, 3 arms | Adults with impaired fasting glucose (n = 30), 8 weeks Cheonggukjang (CH) vs. red ginseng Cheonggukjang (RGCH) vs. control group (starch), 20 g/day | • CH group: decrease in Apo B/A ratio • CH, RGCH group: improvement of lipid profiles | [97] |
Cheonggukjang. | Obesity | In vivo | C57BL/6J mice (fermented with poly-gamma glutamic acid producing Bacillus licheniformis-67), 13 weeks | • Decrease in weight gain (body weight and epididymis fat pad weight in 30% cheonggukjang) | [98] |
Cheonggukjang. | Obesity | RCT, placebo, cross-over | Overweight adults (n = 83), 12 weeks, 35 g/day | • Improved obesity index | [96] |
Cheonggukjang. | Diabetic | In vivo | STZ-induced diabetic rats (soybean cheonggukjang, yakkong cheonggukjang, and black foods, such as black rice, black sesame seeds, and sea tangle added yakkong cheonggukjang powder) | • Improved glycemic control (decreased supplementation of soybean cheonggukjang. Leptin and adiponectin levels were significantly decreased) | [99] |
Cheonggukjang. | Diabetic | RCT, 3 arms | Adults with impaired fasting glucose (n = 30), 8 weeks Cheonggukjang (CH) vs. red ginseng Cheonggukjang (RGCH) vs. control group (starch), 20 g/day | • CH, RGCH group: decrease in fasting glucose level | [97] |
Cheonggukjang. | Anti-allergy | RCT, placebo | Allergy adults with positive response from skin (n = 60), 12 weeks, 35 g/day | • Decrease in skin wheal response to histamine | [100] |
Cheonggukjang | Skin | Open, controlled | Middle-aged women (n = 40) soybean diet and back massage (SDBM), 12 weeks, 35 g/day | • SDBM-group subjects had significant decrease in pH • Decrease in melanin and erythema indices | [101] |
Soybean-based condiments | Diabetic | RCT | Hypertensive and type 2 diabetic (T2D) patients, Korean traditional-diet (KTD) group (n = 21), control group (n = 20), 12 weeks, 3 meal/day | • KTD (soybean-based condiments: 50 g/d): decrease in HbA1c (%), decrease in body fat mass, WC, BMI, and heart rate | [102] |
Jeotgal | Anti-mutation | In vitro | Salted anchovies | • Salted anchovy fermented for 6 and 12 months showed anti-mutagenic activity | [103] |
Jeotgal | Anti-oxidant | In vitro | Salted anchovies | • Salted anchovies contain phenolic compounds and proteins that exert significant antioxidant activity | [104] |
Jeotgal | Anti-oxidant | In vitro | Yellow corvina jeotgal | • Improved scavenging activity due to Maillard reaction during fermentation | [105] |
Jeotgal | Immune | In vivo | Lactobacillus plantarum isolated from salted fish | • Relieved ear edema • Decrease in serum Ig E levels • Increase in IFN-γ levels • Macrophage cell: increase in IL-12 | [106] |
Jeotgal | Cognitive | In vivo | Dementia-induced SD rats Squid (Todarodes pacificus) with 2–4% salt | • Boosted long-term memory activity • Improved acetylcholine levels in the brain | [107] |
Jeotgal | Anti-obesity | In vivo | Obese mice: Lactobacillus plantarum LG42 lactobacilli isolated from flounder sikhae | • Decrease in body fat, serum TG, and insulin levels • Obesity gene: decrease in leptin and SREBP-1 • Liver: increase in PPARα and CPT-I mRNA | [108] |
Jeotgal | Thrombosis | In vitro | Bacillus velezensis BS2 lactic acid bacteria isolated from salted seaweed | • Antithrombotic effect • Increased resistance to salt | [109] |
Vinegar | Obesity/diabetic | In vivo | Persimmon vinegar | • Regulates body weight and blood glucose • Improves lipid metabolism by regulating TG, TC, and acid-insoluble acylcarnitine (AIAC) | [110] |
Vinegar | Obesity | In vivo | Tomato vinegar | • Decrease in amount of visceral fat • Lowered the arteriosclerosis index • Increase in HDL-C/TC ratio | [111] |
Vinegar | Hangover | In vivo | Cucumber vinegar | • Antioxidant activity: increase in DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activity • Lowered levels of ammonia and lactic acid • Relieved hangover symptoms by increasing aldehyde dehydrogenase activity | [112] |
Vinegar | Anti-fatigue | In vivo | Plum vinegar When the administration of plum vinegar and exercise were combined | • Decrease in lactic acid, ammonia, and inorganic phosphoric acid • Increase in endurance function | [113] |
Vinegar | Anti-fatigue | In vivo | Persimmon vinegar | • Inhibited accumulation of lipids (TC, LDL-C, and TG) • Improved glycogen storage capacity (increase in muscle and liver glycogen content) | [114] |
Vinegar | Anti-fatigue | In vivo | Cucumber vinegar In animals subjected to high-intensity exercise, the administration of cucumber vinegar | • Increased endurance by 56% and significantly reduced serum fatigue substances compared to the exercise-only group • Increased glycogen re-synthesis in the liver and muscles, and • increased LDH and creatine kinase in muscle tissue | [115] |
Vinegar | Anti-fatigue | In vivo | Diet-induced obese mice: (tomato vinegar) | • Reduced ammonia, inorganic phosphates, and lactate in the blood • Increased LDH in muscles and maintained ATP in muscle cells | [116] |
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Jung, S.-J.; Chae, S.-W.; Shin, D.-H. Fermented Foods of Korea and Their Functionalities. Fermentation 2022, 8, 645. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8110645
Jung S-J, Chae S-W, Shin D-H. Fermented Foods of Korea and Their Functionalities. Fermentation. 2022; 8(11):645. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8110645
Chicago/Turabian StyleJung, Su-Jin, Soo-Wan Chae, and Dong-Hwa Shin. 2022. "Fermented Foods of Korea and Their Functionalities" Fermentation 8, no. 11: 645. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8110645