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Applied Sciences
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Alternative Fuels in Future Energy System
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Alternative Fuels in Future Energy System

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Energy Science and Technology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 10 June 2024 | Viewed by 20993

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Krzysztof Biernat

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Łukasiewicz R&D Network - Automotive Industry Institute, 03-301 Warszawa, Poland
Interests: energy carriers; including fuels; biofuels and alternative fuels; technologies; exploitation; chemical thermodynamics and thermodynamics of combustion processes

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Progressive climate changes caused, among others, by emissions of carbon dioxide and by the drastically decreasing resources of fossil fuels make it necessary to look for other, renewable energy sources, including alternative fuels and environmentally friendly methods of their use. Technologies for the production of advanced alternative fuels are at research stages with various levels of their development and haven’t found widespread industrial use yet. Therefore, it is important to conduct research and publish their results in terms of the possibility of waste-free use of waste materials, including industrial ones (in BtL and WtL processes). In terms of searching for universal energy carriers, there are two views. One of which concerns the recognition of hydrogen as such a carrier, and the other – the treatment of synthesis gas as such a carrier. For this reason, it is important to research on the development of technologies for obtaining hydrogen from various sources with the limitation of energy-consuming water electrolysis processes as well as limiting the use of water as a scarce resource. In the field of synthesis gas production, it is necessary to work on the development of new, low-energy and catalysed gasification processes of various waste substances, as well as work on methods for further processing of synthesis gas to alternative fuel components, biofuels, including fermentation processes of this gas. The use of alternative fuels in prospective energy systems has direct mean in transport sector and indirect mean in case of industrial processes, also for the production of heat and cold. In each of these prospective applications, it is necessary to consider the environmental added value resulting from the LCA analysis and to demonstrate the positive values ​​of the EROEI indicator ("energy returned on energy invested"). The vision of the development of alternative fuels and their use in prospective energy systems should take into account the combined environmental, technical and technological, economic and social conditions.

Prof. Dr. Krzysztof Biernat
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • alternative fuels
  • biofuels
  • biocomponents
  • drop-in fuels
  • biorefineries
  • biorefinery systems
  • renewable energy
  • sustainable development
  • energy transformation
  • energy efficiency

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 5472 KiB  
Article
Zero-Dimensional Modeling of the Rate of Injection with a Diesel Common Rail System Using Single-Hole Nozzles with Neat Low-Carbon Fuels
by Vicente Rojas-Reinoso, Carmen Mata, Jose Antonio Soriano and Octavio Armas
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(6), 2446; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14062446 - 14 Mar 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 675
Abstract
This paper presents a fuel injection rate predictive model based on zero-dimensional correlations from experimental results. This model estimates the fuel injection rate behavior with varying parameters such as fuel injection pressure-injector energizing, the injection nozzle geometrical characteristics, and fuel viscosity. The model [...] Read more.
This paper presents a fuel injection rate predictive model based on zero-dimensional correlations from experimental results. This model estimates the fuel injection rate behavior with varying parameters such as fuel injection pressure-injector energizing, the injection nozzle geometrical characteristics, and fuel viscosity. The model approach was carried out with diesel fuel. Then, the model was applied to the use of two alternative low-carbon fuels without diesel. An experimental methodology was used under controlled conditions, employing an injection rate indicator to measure the injection parameters in real time. The setup was carried out on a pump test bench using a common rail injection system. The results show that the model can be adapted to different injection conditions and fuels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Fuels in Future Energy System)
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22 pages, 4070 KiB  
Article
Glycerol Carbonate Solventless Synthesis Using Ethylene Carbonate, Glycerol and a Tunisian Smectite Clay: Activity, Stability and Kinetic Studies
by Yosra Snoussi, Itziar A. Escanciano, Mariana Alvarez Serafini, Neji Besbes, Juan M. Bolivar and Miguel Ladero
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(12), 7182; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13127182 - 15 Jun 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1131
Abstract
Biodiesel is nowadays added in 5–10% v/v to diesel, and its production involves the parallel creation of a vast glycerol amount as a by-product. Despite its many applications, there is a surplus of glycerol (Gly) that has boosted the search for [...] Read more.
Biodiesel is nowadays added in 5–10% v/v to diesel, and its production involves the parallel creation of a vast glycerol amount as a by-product. Despite its many applications, there is a surplus of glycerol (Gly) that has boosted the search for new applications of this compound, now transformed into an industrial synthesis intermediate or platform chemical. Its transcarbonation is a type of reaction that occurs under mild conditions, using weak or moderate basic catalysts, and allows the parallel production of glycols of industrial interest with high selectivity, such as ethylene glycol. In this research, we have studied the activity of a Tunisian clay rich in inorganic carbonates that give it a weak basic character. The raw clay (RC) has been fully characterized by XRD, FTIR, SEM-EDS and nitrogen porosimetry. Subsequently, it has been employed as a catalyst to react glycerol (G) with ethylene carbonate (EC) to obtain glycerol carbonate (GC) and ethylene glycol (EG). The main operating variables and their effects on glycerol conversion and initial reaction rate were analyzed: catalyst concentration (2–6% w/w glycerol), reagent molar ratio (EC:G 1.5:1 to 3:1), and temperature (80–110 °C). Then, an appropriate kinetic model was selected from the results obtained under various reaction conditions, including the total deactivation of order 1 of the catalyst. The kinetic constant activation energy in this reaction using Tunisian smectite was found to be around 183.3 kJ·mol−1. In the second phase of the investigation, we explored the reuse of smectite using the kinetic model to appreciate the effect of cycle-to-cycle deactivation. It can be seen that the kinetic constant of the main reaction generally decreases with the number of cycles at low temperature and goes through a maximum at high operating temperature, while the deactivation constant increases with the number of catalytic cycles. The catalyst shows more stability, in general, at higher temperatures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Fuels in Future Energy System)
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21 pages, 3168 KiB  
Article
Oxygenated Diesel Fuels and Their Effect on PM Emissions
by Miłosław Kozak and Jerzy Merkisz
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(15), 7709; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12157709 - 31 Jul 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1761
Abstract
Particulate matter (PM) emitted by diesel engines is one of the most harmful components of exhaust gases, including its carcinogenic effect. Due to the widespread use of diesel engines, the health effects of PM emissions affect millions of people around the world. At [...] Read more.
Particulate matter (PM) emitted by diesel engines is one of the most harmful components of exhaust gases, including its carcinogenic effect. Due to the widespread use of diesel engines, the health effects of PM emissions affect millions of people around the world. At the same time, diesel particulate matter is characterized by a very complicated structure and mechanisms of formation compared to other exhaust gas components. It is obvious that PM emissions should be limited by all means. This article focuses on the reduction of PM emissions with the use of oxygenated fuels. The mechanisms of oxygenated fuels influence on the soot formation process in the working process of diesel engines have been discussed. The importance of the chemical structure of oxygenated compounds for the effectiveness of PM emissions reduction was considered. The results of empirical research on the influence on PM emissions of oxygenated fuels containing 12 oxygenates from chemical groups such as glycol ethers, maleates, carbonates and butanol were analyzed. The emissions tests were undertaken on a diesel passenger car over the NEDC and FTP-75 cycles. The results showed a high potential of oxygenated fuels in PM emissions reduction, even at a low oxygenates concentration of 5% v/v; namely, PM emissions were reduced by up to 32%. According to tests results, 1% of oxygen in the fuel resulted in an average reduction of PM emissions by 7% to 10%. In the view of already limited possibilities of modifying conventional parameters of diesel fuels, the use of oxygenated compounds is a promising way to trade on the potential of fuels in PM emissions reduction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Fuels in Future Energy System)
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12 pages, 909 KiB  
Article
High-Efficiency Conversion of Bread Residues to Ethanol and Edible Biomass Using Filamentous Fungi at High Solids Loading: A Biorefinery Approach
by Joanna Kawa-Rygielska, Witold Pietrzak and Patrik R. Lennartsson
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(13), 6405; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12136405 - 23 Jun 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2166
Abstract
Bread residues represent a significant fraction of retail food wastes, becoming a severe environmental challenge and an economic loss for the food sector. They are, however, an attractive resource for bioconversion into value-added products. In this study, the edible filamentous fungi Neurospora intermedia [...] Read more.
Bread residues represent a significant fraction of retail food wastes, becoming a severe environmental challenge and an economic loss for the food sector. They are, however, an attractive resource for bioconversion into value-added products. In this study, the edible filamentous fungi Neurospora intermedia and Aspergillus oryzae were employed for the production of bioethanol and high-protein biomass by cultivation on enzymatically liquefied bread-waste medium at 150 g/L solids. The fermentation of hydrolysate by N. intermedia resulted in the ethanol titer of 32.2 g/L and biomass yield of 19.2 g/L with ca. 45% protein. However, the fermentation ended with a considerable amount of residual fermentable sugars; therefore, the liquid medium after the first fermentation was distilled and fermented again by two fungal strains (N. intermedia and A. oryzae). The fermentations resulted in the production of additional ethanol and biomass. A. oryzae showed better performance in the production of biomass, while the other strain yielded more ethanol. The final products’ yield ranged 0.29–0.32 g EtOH/g and 0.20–0.22 g biomass/g bread waste depending on the strain used in the second fermentation. The study shows that valorization of bread residuals by fungi is a promising option for the production of biofuels and foodstuff within the circular bioeconomy approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Fuels in Future Energy System)
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20 pages, 2171 KiB  
Article
Are Sustainable Aviation Fuels a Viable Option for Decarbonizing Air Transport in Europe? An Environmental and Economic Sustainability Assessment
by Alexander Barke, Timo Bley, Christian Thies, Christian Weckenborg and Thomas S. Spengler
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(2), 597; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12020597 - 08 Jan 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 9041
Abstract
The use of drop-in capable alternative fuels in aircraft can support the European aviation sector to achieve its goals for sustainable development. They can be a transitional solution in the short and medium term, as their use does not require any structural changes [...] Read more.
The use of drop-in capable alternative fuels in aircraft can support the European aviation sector to achieve its goals for sustainable development. They can be a transitional solution in the short and medium term, as their use does not require any structural changes to the aircraft powertrain. However, the production of alternative fuels is often energy-intensive, and some feedstocks are associated with harmful effects on the environment. In addition, alternative fuels are often more expensive to produce than fossil kerosene, which can make their use unattractive. Therefore, this paper analyzes the environmental and economic impacts of four types of alternative fuels compared to fossil kerosene in a well-to-wake perspective. The fuels investigated are sustainable aviation fuels produced by power-to-liquid and biomass-to-liquid pathways. Life cycle assessment and life cycle costing are used as environmental and economic assessment methods. The results of this well-to-wake analysis reveal that the use of sustainable aviation fuels can reduce the environmental impacts of aircraft operations. However, an electricity mix based on renewable energies is needed to achieve significant reductions. In addition, from an economic perspective, the use of fossil kerosene ranks best among the alternatives. A scenario analysis confirms this result and shows that the production of sustainable aviation fuels using an electricity mix based solely on renewable energy can lead to significant reductions in environmental impact, but economic competitiveness remains problematic. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Fuels in Future Energy System)
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10 pages, 1894 KiB  
Article
Compatibility of Different Automotive Elastomers in Paraffinic Diesel Fuel
by Tomasz Białecki, Andrzej Sitkiewicz, Bolesław Giemza, Jarosław Sarnecki, Marta Skolniak and Bartosz Gawron
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(23), 11312; https://doi.org/10.3390/app112311312 - 29 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2133
Abstract
The introduction of new fuels to power internal combustion engines requires testing the compatibility of such fuels with materials commonly used in fuel supply systems. This paper investigates the influence of alternative fuels on the acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber and fluoroelastomer used in the automotive [...] Read more.
The introduction of new fuels to power internal combustion engines requires testing the compatibility of such fuels with materials commonly used in fuel supply systems. This paper investigates the influence of alternative fuels on the acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber and fluoroelastomer used in the automotive industry. In the study, conventional diesel fuel, its blend with 7% of fatty acid methyl esters and paraffinic diesel fuel produced with the Fisher Tropsch synthesis from natural gas were interacted with the elastomers. The immersion tests were carried out at room temperature (20 °C) for 168 h. The effect was evaluated based on changes in the selected rubber’s volume, mass and hardness. It has been confirmed that the synthetic component without aromatic hydrocarbons had a different effect on the tested rubber than did conventional fuel. In follow-up work, the selected rubbers were also subjected to microscopic observation. The most frequently observed effect was the washing out of the seal protective layer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Fuels in Future Energy System)
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16 pages, 2025 KiB  
Article
Biological Methods in Biodiesel Production and Their Environmental Impact
by Krzysztof Biernat, Anna Matuszewska, Izabela Samson-Bręk and Marlena Owczuk
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(22), 10946; https://doi.org/10.3390/app112210946 - 19 Nov 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2879
Abstract
This publication presents the technologies of enzymatic biodiesel production in comparison to the conventional methods using acid and base catalysts. Transesterification with conventional catalysts has some disadvantages, and for this reason, alternative methods of biodiesel production have been investigated. These solutions include the [...] Read more.
This publication presents the technologies of enzymatic biodiesel production in comparison to the conventional methods using acid and base catalysts. Transesterification with conventional catalysts has some disadvantages, and for this reason, alternative methods of biodiesel production have been investigated. These solutions include the replacement of chemical catalysts with biological ones, which show substrate specificity in relation to fats. Replacing chemical with biological catalysts causes elimination of some disadvantages of chemical processes, for instance: high temperatures of reaction, problematic process of glycerol purification, higher alcohol-to-oil molar ratios, and soap formation. Moreover, it causes operational cost reduction and has a positive environmental impact. This is due to the lower temperature of the process, which in turn translates into lower cost of equipment and lower GHG emissions associated with the need to provide less heat to the process. The increase of biofuels’ demand has led to the technology of enzymatic biodiesel production being constantly being developed. This research mainly focuses on the possibility of obtaining cheaper and more effective biocatalysts, as well as increasing the durability of enzyme immobilization on different materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Fuels in Future Energy System)
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