Circular Battery Technologies

A special issue of Batteries (ISSN 2313-0105).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (26 October 2022) | Viewed by 131740

Special Issue Editors


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Guest Editor
Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Industrial Materials Recycling, Chalmers University of Technology, Kemivägen 4, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
Interests: batteries; recycling; supercritical fluid; pyrometallurgy; PV recycling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Industrial Materials Recycling, Chalmers University of Technology, Kemivägen 4, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
Interests: batteries; recycling; solvent extraction; hydrometallurgy; industrial waste
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The supply and management of energy are at the center of our daily concerns and represent a socio-economic priority. The increasing concern on global warming enforces the states and companies to concentrate on renewable energy sources to reduce the carbon footprint of energy production/consumption. The energy storage technology is the key player in this rapid change “modern time revolution”. Battery systems should store surplus electricity from the smart grid for hours, days, and even weeks, if necessary, because electricity generation from renewable sources fluctuates with weather conditions, Likewise, the replacement of internal combustion cars by electric vehicles to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions and to limit our dependence towards fossil fuels stimulate the search for energy storage devices including batteries, fuel cells, electrolysis for hydrogen production, pumped-storage power plants, etc. Thus the energy storage devices have been attracting enormous attention due to not only developments in the electronics industry, but also entering the electric vehicles to the market and the necessity of effective renewable energy applications.

Many electrochemical storage technologies have been developed since the first lead-acid battery invented in 1859 by Gaston Planté. Over the last two decades, the rapid progress in battery technologies has directly affected modern life, not only through various applications, but also with energy and carbon footprints of their production and manufacturing, from mining to end-of-life product management. Each technology finds its place depending on its applications. For instance, alkaline batteries are largely used for small home electronics because this technology is economical and safe. After the marketing of Li-ion batteries, the technology had been slowly dominated the most of battery applications from small electronics to vehicle technology and to stationary energy storage fields.  Although battery technologies are mature, there are still many challenges to be faced in the development of performance, safe and sustainable technologies for dedicated applications. Increasing demand to the batteries triggered significant new problems, which are organizing sustainable raw material supply and how we will handle increasing battery waste amounts. A good balance must be found between battery performance, safety and recycling ability, as well as reliable raw material supply.

The following topics will be addressed in the Special Issue: Raw materials for battery technologies, electrolytes, electrode materials, design and development, applications (stationary batteries, electrified transportation, and smart grids), collection and regulation, secondary life and recycling.

Therefore, this Special Issue will gather, for the second time, contributions from several different communities: Electrochemistry, battery manufacturers, material science, engineering processes, extractive metallurgy, recycling, and Life Cycle Assessment.

Dr. Burcak Ebin
Dr. Martina Petranikova
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • Electrochemistry
  • Electrode materials
  • Electrolyte
  • Battery design
  • Battery manufacturing
  • Spent battery collection
  • Secondary life - reuse Extractive metallurgy
  • Recycling
  • Life Cycle Assessment

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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26 pages, 10274 KiB  
Article
A Combined Hydro-Mechanical and Pyrometallurgical Recycling Approach to Recover Valuable Metals from Lithium-Ion Batteries Avoiding Lithium Slagging
by Alexandra Holzer, Jörg Zimmermann, Lukas Wiszniewski, Tobias Necke, Christoph Gatschlhofer, Wolfgang Öfner and Harald Raupenstrauch
Batteries 2023, 9(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9010015 - 26 Dec 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3474
Abstract
Meeting the increasing demand for energy storage based on lithium-ion batteries (LIB) is not only a question of resource availability but also an issue of resource conservation and efficient recycling management. In this respect, sustainable recycling concepts play a central role in mindful [...] Read more.
Meeting the increasing demand for energy storage based on lithium-ion batteries (LIB) is not only a question of resource availability but also an issue of resource conservation and efficient recycling management. In this respect, sustainable recycling concepts play a central role in mindful interactions with valuable materials. Based on this approach, a process interconnection of hydromechanical preparation, flotation, and pyrometallurgical treatment was investigated. The hydromechanical preparation showed promising results in achieving highly pure mixtures of LIB-active material. It was found that a pre-opening step could achieve an even better separation of impurities for downstream processes such as Cu and Al to avoid excessive particle size reduction. According to an optimized mixing stage during flotation, the C amount was reduced from 33 wt.% to 19.23 wt.%. A Li-free metal alloy was obtained through the subsequent pyrometallurgical treatment, and evidence for Li removal via the gas phase was provided. Furthermore, heating microscope trials confirmed the results of the process interconnection and showed that further optimization steps for the pre-treatment are necessary for favorable product quality. Therefore, a high-stratification plot was created, which allows a quick future statement about the suitability of the input material for use in the process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)
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19 pages, 833 KiB  
Article
Lead Acid Batteries (LABs) Closed-Loop Supply Chain: The Brazilian Case
by Gabriela Scur, Claudia Mattos, Wilson Hilsdorf and Marcelo Armelin
Batteries 2022, 8(10), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100139 - 22 Sep 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5254
Abstract
In the circular economy, a closed-loop supply chain is essential to guarantee the logistics of raw materials to the correct destination of the end-of-life (EOL) product. This is magnified by hazardous products that can contaminate the environment, such as lead, as well as [...] Read more.
In the circular economy, a closed-loop supply chain is essential to guarantee the logistics of raw materials to the correct destination of the end-of-life (EOL) product. This is magnified by hazardous products that can contaminate the environment, such as lead, as well as the people involved in their production processes. Through an exploratory study of multiple cases, we analyzed the Brazilian lead-based vehicle battery chain by investigating two main manufacturers, two recycling companies, and eight distributors/retailers. The aim of the study was to analyze the relationships between the actors in the lead acid battery chain and identify the mechanisms that induce recycling programs, and to propose an explanatory framework. The results indicate that although the sustainability strategies of OEMs are implemented by regulatory mechanisms, the impacts of these strategies cascade among all agents in the supply chain, promoting a convergence between actions and relationships between actors from the perspective of the triple bottom line, highlighting variables for each dimension (economic, social, and environmental). The study contributes to the consolidation of the triple bottom line concepts in the lead acid battery production chain and presents managerial implications for sustainability management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)
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24 pages, 3156 KiB  
Article
Life Cycle Assessment of a Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Unit Made of Cylindrical Cells
by Morena Falcone, Nicolò Federico Quattromini, Claudio Rossi and Beatrice Pulvirenti
Batteries 2022, 8(8), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8080076 - 25 Jul 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6144
Abstract
Saving energy is a fundamental topic considering the growing energy requirements with respect to energy availability. Many studies have been devoted to this question, and life cycle assessment (LCA) is increasingly acquiring importance in several fields as an effective way to evaluate the [...] Read more.
Saving energy is a fundamental topic considering the growing energy requirements with respect to energy availability. Many studies have been devoted to this question, and life cycle assessment (LCA) is increasingly acquiring importance in several fields as an effective way to evaluate the energy demand and the emissions associated with products’ life cycles. In this work, an LCA analysis of an existent lithium-ion battery pack (BP) unit is presented with the aim to increase awareness about its consumption and offering alternative production solutions that are less energy intensive. Exploiting the literature data about cradle-to-grave and cradle-to-gate investigations, and after establishing reasonable approximations, the main BP sub-elements were considered for this study, such as the plastic cells support, the Li-ion cells brick, the PCBs for a battery management system (BMS), the liquid-based battery thermal management system (BTMS) and the BP container. For each of these components, the impacts of the extraction, processing, assembly, and transportation of raw materials are estimated and the partial and total values of the energy demand (ED) and global warming potential (GWP) are determined. The final interpretation of the results allows one to understand the important role played by LCA evaluations and presents other possible ways of reducing the energy consumption and CO2 emissions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)
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9 pages, 1336 KiB  
Article
Attention-Based Long Short-Term Memory Recurrent Neural Network for Capacity Degradation of Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Tadele Mamo and Fu-Kwun Wang
Batteries 2021, 7(4), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7040066 - 13 Oct 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3327
Abstract
Monitoring cycle life can provide a prediction of the remaining battery life. To improve the prediction accuracy of lithium-ion battery capacity degradation, we propose a hybrid long short-term memory recurrent neural network model with an attention mechanism. The hyper-parameters of the proposed model [...] Read more.
Monitoring cycle life can provide a prediction of the remaining battery life. To improve the prediction accuracy of lithium-ion battery capacity degradation, we propose a hybrid long short-term memory recurrent neural network model with an attention mechanism. The hyper-parameters of the proposed model are also optimized by a differential evolution algorithm. Using public battery datasets, the proposed model is compared to some published models, and it gives better prediction performance in terms of mean absolute percentage error and root mean square error. In addition, the proposed model can achieve higher prediction accuracy of battery end of life. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)
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26 pages, 4361 KiB  
Article
Life Cycle Modelling of Extraction and Processing of Battery Minerals—A Parametric Approach
by Nelson Bunyui Manjong, Lorenzo Usai, Odne Stokke Burheim and Anders Hammer Strømman
Batteries 2021, 7(3), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030057 - 24 Aug 2021
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 9532
Abstract
Sustainable battery production with low environmental footprints requires a systematic assessment of the entire value chain, from raw material extraction and processing to battery production and recycling. In order to explore and understand the variations observed in the reported footprints of raw battery [...] Read more.
Sustainable battery production with low environmental footprints requires a systematic assessment of the entire value chain, from raw material extraction and processing to battery production and recycling. In order to explore and understand the variations observed in the reported footprints of raw battery materials, it is vital to re-assess the footprints of these material value chains. Identifying the causes of these variations by combining engineering and environmental system analysis expands our knowledge of the footprints of these battery materials. This article disaggregates the value chains of six raw battery materials (aluminum, copper, graphite, lithium carbonate, manganese, and nickel) and identifies the sources of variabilities (levers) for each process along each value chain. We developed a parametric attributional process-based life cycle model to explore the effect of these levers on the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the value chains, expressed in kg of CO2e. The parametric life cycle inventory model is used to conduct distinct life cycle assessments (LCA) for each material value chain by varying the identified levers within defined engineering ranges. 570 distinct LCAs are conducted for the aluminum value chain, 450 for copper, 170 for graphite, 39 for lithium carbonate via spodumene, 20 for lithium carbonate via brine, 260 for manganese, and 440 for nickel. Three-dimensional representations of these results for each value chain in kg of CO2e are presented as contour plots with gradient lines illustrating the intensity of lever combinations on the GHG emissions. The results of this study convey multidimensional insights into how changes in the lever settings of value chains yield variations in the overall GHG emissions of the raw materials. Parameterization of these value chains forms a flexible and high-resolution backbone, leading towards a more reliable life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries (LIB). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)
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11 pages, 603 KiB  
Article
Factors Influencing the Formation of Sodium Hydroxide by an Ion Exchange Membrane Cell
by Jimmy Aurelio Rosales-Huamani, Juan Taumaturgo Medina-Collana, Zoila Margarita Diaz-Cordova and Jorge Alberto Montaño-Pisfil
Batteries 2021, 7(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7020034 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 8467
Abstract
The present study aimed to evaluate the factors that influence the formation of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) by means of an electrolytic cell with ion exchange membranes. To achieve this experiment, the NaOH production cell had to be designed and built inexpensively, using graphite [...] Read more.
The present study aimed to evaluate the factors that influence the formation of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) by means of an electrolytic cell with ion exchange membranes. To achieve this experiment, the NaOH production cell had to be designed and built inexpensively, using graphite electrodes. The operational parameters in our study were: initial NaOH concentration, applied voltage, and temperature. All experiments were carried out using model NaCl solutions with a concentration of 40 g/L for 150 min. The results of the experiment were that the NaOH concentration, conductivity, and pH presented an increasing linear trend with the electrolysis time. Finally, it was possible to obtain the efficiency level of the electric current in our investigation, which was an average of 80.2%, that indicated good performance of the built cell. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)
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21 pages, 6153 KiB  
Article
Battery Scrap and Biochar Utilization for Improved Metal Recoveries in Nickel Slag Cleaning Conditions
by Katri Avarmaa, Marko Järvenpää, Lassi Klemettinen, Miikka Marjakoski, Pekka Taskinen, Daniel Lindberg and Ari Jokilaakso
Batteries 2020, 6(4), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6040058 - 2 Dec 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4365
Abstract
Cobalt is a critical, high-value metal used extensively in batteries and other sustainable technologies. To secure its supply in future, it is utmost important to recover cobalt efficiently from industrial wastes and recycled End-of-Life batteries. This study aims at finding ways to improve [...] Read more.
Cobalt is a critical, high-value metal used extensively in batteries and other sustainable technologies. To secure its supply in future, it is utmost important to recover cobalt efficiently from industrial wastes and recycled End-of-Life batteries. This study aims at finding ways to improve the reduction of cobalt as well as valuable metals nickel and copper in nickel slag cleaning furnace conditions by using both traditional fossil-based coke and a more sustainable option, low-CO2 footprint biochar, as reductants. A cobalt-rich fraction of battery scrap (25.5 wt% Co) was also used as a secondary feed. The experimental technique consisted of reduction experiments with different times at 1400 °C under inert atmosphere, quick quenching and Electron Probe X-ray Microanalysis. The use of biochar resulted in faster reaction kinetics in the reduction process, compared to coke. Moreover, the presence of battery scrap had a clear impact on the behavior and reduction kinetics of the elements and/or enhanced settling and separation of matte and slag. The addition of scrap increased notably the distribution coefficients of the valuable metals but consequently also the iron concentration in matte which is the thermodynamic constraint of the slag cleaning process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)
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17 pages, 2497 KiB  
Article
Behavior of Battery Metals Lithium, Cobalt, Manganese and Lanthanum in Black Copper Smelting
by Anna Dańczak, Lassi Klemettinen, Matti Kurhila, Pekka Taskinen, Daniel Lindberg and Ari Jokilaakso
Batteries 2020, 6(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6010016 - 2 Mar 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 7796
Abstract
Recycling of metals from different waste streams must be increased in the near future for securing the availability of metals that are critical for high-tech applications, such as batteries for e-mobility. Black copper smelting is a flexible recycling route for many different types [...] Read more.
Recycling of metals from different waste streams must be increased in the near future for securing the availability of metals that are critical for high-tech applications, such as batteries for e-mobility. Black copper smelting is a flexible recycling route for many different types of scrap, including Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and some end-of-life energy storage materials. Fundamental thermodynamic data about the behavior of battery metals and the effect of slag additives is required for providing data necessary for process development, control, and optimization. The goal of our study is to investigate the suitability of black copper smelting process for recycling of battery metals lithium, cobalt, manganese, and lanthanum. The experiments were performed alumina crucibles at 1300 °C, in oxygen partial pressure range of 10−11–10−8 atm. The slags studied contained 0 to 6 wt% of MgO. Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) and laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) techniques were utilized for phase composition quantifications. The results reveal that most cobalt can be recovered into the copper alloy in extremely reducing process conditions, whereas lithium, manganese, and lanthanum deport predominantly in the slag at all investigated oxygen partial pressures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)
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Review

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15 pages, 846 KiB  
Review
Review of Achieved Purities after Li-ion Batteries Hydrometallurgical Treatment and Impurities Effects on the Cathode Performance
by Olimpia A. Nasser and Martina Petranikova
Batteries 2021, 7(3), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030060 - 3 Sep 2021
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 7242
Abstract
This paper is a product purity study of recycled Li-ion batteries with a focus on hydrometallurgical recycling processes. Firstly, a brief description of the current recycling status was presented based on the research data. Moreover, this work presented the influence of impurities such [...] Read more.
This paper is a product purity study of recycled Li-ion batteries with a focus on hydrometallurgical recycling processes. Firstly, a brief description of the current recycling status was presented based on the research data. Moreover, this work presented the influence of impurities such as Cu, Fe and Mg on recovered cathode materials performance. The impact of the impurities was described depending on their form (metallic or ionic) and concentration. This work also reviewed hydrometallurgical recycling processes depending on the recovered material, obtained purity and recovery methods. This purity data were obtained from both research and battery industry actors. Finally, the purity study was completed by collecting data regarding commercial battery-grade chemical compounds and active lithium cathode materials, including required purity levels and allowed impurity limitations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)
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33 pages, 3465 KiB  
Review
A Critical Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Processes from a Circular Economy Perspective
by Omar Velázquez-Martínez, Johanna Valio, Annukka Santasalo-Aarnio, Markus Reuter and Rodrigo Serna-Guerrero
Batteries 2019, 5(4), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5040068 - 5 Nov 2019
Cited by 344 | Viewed by 73059
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are currently one of the most important electrochemical energy storage devices, powering electronic mobile devices and electric vehicles alike. However, there is a remarkable difference between their rate of production and rate of recycling. At the end of their lifecycle, [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are currently one of the most important electrochemical energy storage devices, powering electronic mobile devices and electric vehicles alike. However, there is a remarkable difference between their rate of production and rate of recycling. At the end of their lifecycle, only a limited number of LIBs undergo any recycling treatment, with the majority go to landfills or being hoarded in households. Further losses of LIB components occur because the the state-of-the-art LIB recycling processes are limited to components with high economic value, e.g., Co, Cu, Fe, and Al. With the increasing popularity of concepts such as “circular economy” (CE), new LIB recycling systems have been proposed that target a wider spectrum of compounds, thus reducing the environmental impact associated with LIB production. This review work presents a discussion of the current practices and some of the most promising emerging technologies for recycling LIBs. While other authoritative reviews have focused on the description of recycling processes, the aim of the present was is to offer an analysis of recycling technologies from a CE perspective. Consequently, the discussion is based on the ability of each technology to recover every component in LIBs. The gathered data depicted a direct relationship between process complexity and the variety and usability of the recovered fractions. Indeed, only processes employing a combination of mechanical processing, and hydro- and pyrometallurgical steps seemed able to obtain materials suitable for LIB (re)manufacture. On the other hand, processes relying on pyrometallurgical steps are robust, but only capable of recovering metallic components. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)
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