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Biological Colonization of Cultural Heritage. Emerging Trends in the Protection of Cultural Properties—Novel Control Strategies and Preventive Approaches

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A special issue of Coatings (ISSN 2079-6412). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Aspects in Colloid and Interface Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2023) | Viewed by 11906

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Daniela Pinna

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Department of Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician", Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
Interests: biology applied to cultural heritage conservation; treatments of biological colonization; monitoring of recolonization; testing and evaluation of conservation products; stone polychromy
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Prof. Dr. Beata Gutarowska

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Institute of Fermentation Technology and Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Lodz University of Technology, Wolczanska 171/173, 90-924 Lodz, Poland
Interests: biodeterioration; biodegradation; biotechnology; environmental microbiology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The durability of the world’s cultural heritage depends on many factors, mostly related to the surrounding environment with threats frequently coming from climatic conditions, climate change, air pollution, and biological colonization. Cultural heritage objects support life, and their preservation is at risk of deterioration by living organisms. At present, the importance of biodeterioration processes on historical artworks has attracted a growing amount of attention from the people in charge of their protection. Conservation strategies are mainly devoted to controlling biological development and to preventing its impact. This Special Issue aims to publish outstanding papers on novel advances in products, methods, and techniques for the prevention and control of organisms involved in the biodeterioration of cultural heritage. The application of ecofriendly processes that do not require the use of harmful materials has recently received growing consideration. The evaluation of their effectiveness, environmental impact, long-term effect, and harmlessness toward substrates have been the topics of many recent studies. Toxicity and environmental impact are important causes for concern today in the selection of products such as biocides. This Issue will also focus on analytical techniques suitable to assess the efficacy of control methods. Several diagnostic tools have been developed for in situ monitoring of the performance of methods and products and for the detection of possible risks, thus facilitating maintenance and management decisions.

Dr. Daniela Pinna
Prof. Beata Gutarowska
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

cultural heritage
biodeterioration
conservation strategies
biocides
ecofriendly processes
control methods
prevention
maintenance
analytical techniques

Published Papers (10 papers)

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12 pages, 2472 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Promising Antifungal Activity of Cedrela fissilis Wood Extractives as Natural Biocides against Xylophagous Fungi for Wood Artwork of Cultural Heritage

by Camila Sofía Vovchuk, Tomás González Garello, Valeria Pilar Careaga and Alejandra Teresa Fazio

Coatings 2024, 14(2), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14020237 - 18 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 758

Abstract

Xylophagous fungi are able to thrive inside wood because they produce enzymes that can degrade it and cause significant damage. Due to this process, in the case of wood that forms part of the structure of a building or furniture, xylophagous fungi pose a serious problem that needs to be addressed, as they can compromise the integrity and durability of the wood. The aim of this work was to obtain extractives from Cedrela fissilis wood in order to conduct a preliminary evaluation of their antifungal activity against xylophagous fungi Trametes trogii (white rot), Pycnoporus sanguineus (white rot), and Chaetomium globosum (soft rot). The antifungal activity of the extractives was evaluated against these xylophagous fungi through tests of growth fungal colonies with the extractives in Petri dishes. All the evaluated extractives showed antifungal activity against all the fungi tested, demonstrating their potential use as natural biocides for wood artwork of Cultural Heritage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Colonization of Cultural Heritage. Emerging Trends in the Protection of Cultural Properties—Novel Control Strategies and Preventive Approaches)

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17 pages, 5886 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Evaluation of New Silica Nanosystems as Long-Lasting Methods to Prevent Stone Monument Biodeterioration

by Flavia Bartoli, Zohreh Hosseini, Valerio Graziani, Martina Zuena, Carlo Venettacci, Giancarlo Della Ventura, Luca Tortora, Armida Sodo and Giulia Caneva

Coatings 2024, 14(2), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14020163 - 26 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 812

Abstract

Microbial colonization can lead to various biodeterioration phenomena in outdoor stone monuments. To prevent these issues and mitigate the negative effects of chemical control, recent research has focused on encapsulating biocides in nanostructures. We tested the antifouling efficiency of the new multifunctional coating through in situ experiments performed on the Aurelian Walls in Rome. We selected two different biocides (2-mercaptobenzothiazole and zosteric sodium salt) and loaded them into two different silica nanocontainers (nanocapsules and mesoporous particles), which were dispersed in TEOS coatings. These coatings were applied to four common lithotypes (marble, travertine, mortar, and brick). Subsequently, we accelerated the colonization by inoculating microorganisms onto half of the samples, subjecting all samples to aging cycles. We conducted colorimetric, infrared spectroscopy, and other microscopic analyses to assess their durability and antimicrobial action. Our 3-year survey indicates that the coatings demonstrated antifoulant efficiency across all samples, with higher effectiveness observed on brick and mortar compared to travertine and marble. Among the nanostructures, nanocapsules exhibited greater efficiency than mesoporous particles, and regarding the biocides, the commercial one outperformed the natural one. These findings highlighted the potential of such systems in preserving cultural heritage; however, further research and product development is imperative for practical implementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Colonization of Cultural Heritage. Emerging Trends in the Protection of Cultural Properties—Novel Control Strategies and Preventive Approaches)

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17 pages, 1992 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Short-Term Effect of Biopolymer-Based Coatings on Surface Hardness and Color of Limestone Exposed to Tropical Outdoor Conditions

by Juan Carlos Camacho-Chab, Pedro Alberto Camacho-Chab, Juan Enrique Pereañez-Sacarías, Jorge Luis Montero-Muñoz, Augusto Ignacio Almeyda-Cen, Luis Alonso Dzul-López, María Manuela Reyes-Estebanez and Benjamín Otto Ortega-Morales

Coatings 2024, 14(2), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14020154 - 23 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1026

Abstract

It has previously been shown that epilithic bacterial biopolymers used as coatings influenced the physical properties (surface hardness and color change) at different levels and decreased the surface disaggregation of experimental limestone when evaluated at the laboratory level. A short-term study (30 days) was conducted to evaluate the performance under natural conditions of limestone blocks exposed to tropical conditions of a selected bacterial biopolymer (TM1B-488, after the producing bacterium) and a previously unreported Mayan plant biopolymer known as “Escobilla”, Sida rhombifolia (Malvaceae) used in conservation procedures. Surface hardness (Leeb units) and color (L*a*b* coordinates) were measured and statistically tested for two types of limestone blocks (sound and deteriorated limestone). Both biopolymers increased surface hardness, decreased surface disaggregation, and did not alter color. Escobilla polymer is a carbohydrate-rich biopolymer characterized by tangential filtration, global chemical composition, and monosaccharide composition of hydrolyzed polymer. These results indicate that biopolymers of a heteropolysaccharide nature are constituted by some anionic charge residues that could contribute to surface stabilization and consolidation, but compatibility with traditional building materials (mortars) and longer time of exposure (a year) are necessary to fully assess their applicability in the restoration of architectural heritage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Colonization of Cultural Heritage. Emerging Trends in the Protection of Cultural Properties—Novel Control Strategies and Preventive Approaches)

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22 pages, 12909 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Study on Microbial Deterioration Control and Effectiveness Evaluation in the Neolithic Prehistoric Archaeological Site of Dadiwan, Northwest China

by Ruihong Xu, Yuxin Chen, Dongpeng He, Guobin Zhang, Qiang Luo, Hongtao Zhan and Fasi Wu

Coatings 2024, 14(1), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14010100 - 11 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1151

Abstract

Microbial deterioration as one of the widespread problems in archaeological site museums significantly affects their safety and exhibits. This paper systemically investigated the environments and conditions of microbial outbreaks in the Dadiwan No. F901 site museum, which is a representative archaeological site of prehistoric Yangshao culture. The morphology and harmful characteristics of the outbreak microorganisms were analyzed by microscopic techniques. The ultraviolet resistance of harmful microorganisms was also studied. Combining these findings with the original facilities of the site museum, a scientific and reasonable project was proposed to control and prevent the activity of harmful microorganisms. In addition, a 1% OIT/DCOIT biocide concentration was applied to inhibit microorganism-caused deterioration, in combination with mechanical removal based on laboratory tests and screening in situ. The effectiveness of microbial control was assessed using a portable microscope, ATP bioluminescence assay, and color difference detection. As a long-lasting preventive measure for microbial deterioration, an ultraviolet sterilization system can efficaciously prevent the re-outbreak of microbial deterioration to form a relatively stable dynamic balance for the surroundings of the site. This study is a resultful exploration in terms of microbial control and plays an important role in the sustainable protection of archaeological site museums. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Colonization of Cultural Heritage. Emerging Trends in the Protection of Cultural Properties—Novel Control Strategies and Preventive Approaches)

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22 pages, 5029 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Novel Method for Assessing the Protection Lifetime of Building Coatings against Fungi

by Justyna Szulc, Michał Komar, Iwona Kata, Krzysztof Szafran and Beata Gutarowska

Coatings 2023, 13(12), 2026; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13122026 - 30 Nov 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 854

Abstract

The aim of this study was to develop a novel method for evaluating the service life of building coatings. In Stage 1, we assessed existing methods for determining the degree of fungal overgrowth on building materials (visual assessment, culture method, luminometric ATP (adenosine-5’-triphosphate) measurement, and spectrophotometric assessment of colour changes). Laboratory tests were carried out for 19 types of facade coating (mineral and silicone with/without primer, silicone paint, biocides) and 7 fungal strains (moulds Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger, Aureobasidium melanogenum, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Fusarium sp., Penicillium citrinum, and the yeast Rhodotorula mucilaginosa). The number of fungi on the facade coatings after 28 days of incubation was 1.7 × 10⁵–4.6 × 10⁵ CFUs (colony-forming units)/sample. The ATP content was 12 RLUs–30333 RLUs (relative light units). Colour change was ΔE > 5 depending on the coating type and fungal strain. A high or very high correlation was found between the ATP concentration (RLUs), colour change (ΔE), and the results of the culture method (CFUs/sample). In Stage 2, a new methodology for evaluating the protection lifetime of building coatings against fungi was developed, taking into account environmental conditions (impact of ultraviolet radiation, precipitation, presence of organic matter on the surface, quantitative and qualitative composition of bioaerosol). The developed method consists of one research cycle conducted in the laboratory, corresponding to one year under natural conditions. Preliminary verification showed the model to be compatible with long-term observations (3 years) of fungal growth on the facade coatings under real environmental conditions. The novel method could be used to design biodeterioration control and protection strategies for both new and cultural heritage buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Colonization of Cultural Heritage. Emerging Trends in the Protection of Cultural Properties—Novel Control Strategies and Preventive Approaches)

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17 pages, 4841 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application and Monitoring of Oxidative Alginate–Biocide Hydrogels for Two Case Studies in “The Sassi and the Park of the Rupestrian Churches of Matera”

by Francesco Gabriele, Laura Bruno, Cinzia Casieri, Roberta Ranaldi, Lorenza Rugnini and Nicoletta Spreti

Coatings 2022, 12(4), 462; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings12040462 - 29 Mar 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1717

Abstract

The removal of biological colonization on building materials of cultural heritage is a difficult challenge, as the treatment must completely eliminate the biological patina without altering the treated substrate and possibly delaying new colonization. With the aim of searching for systems to minimize the biocide impact on the substrate, the environment and the operators, different alginate–oxidizing biocide hydrogels were previously tested and optimized in the laboratory and here selected for application in situ. The churches “San Pietro Barisano” and “Madonna dei Derelitti”, located in the Sassi of Matera (UNESCO World Heritage Site in Basilicata region, Italy), were chosen as case studies. They differ in terms of both the environmental conditions and the microorganisms responsible for colonization. Colorimetric measurements and microscopic investigation proved the efficacy of biocide hydrogels in removing biopatinas and in restoring the original chromaticity of the selected treated surfaces of both sites. After the biocidal treatments, new protective acrylic coatings were applied to prevent recolonization and minimize the loss of material grains. Samples collected, immediately after and two years later, established the absence of biological colonization, demonstrating the long-term efficacy of the proposed restoration protocol. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Colonization of Cultural Heritage. Emerging Trends in the Protection of Cultural Properties—Novel Control Strategies and Preventive Approaches)

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10 pages, 3152 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Green Patina and Chromatic Alterations on Surfaces of Gypsum Plaster Casts by Lucio Fontana: Multidisciplinary Investigations in a Case Study of Contemporary Art

by Silvia Bruni, Federica Troiano, Vittoria Guglielmi, Margherita Longoni, Francesca Cappitelli and Nicola G. Ludwig

Coatings 2022, 12(4), 426; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings12040426 - 23 Mar 2022

Viewed by 1531

Abstract

Literature reports on Lucio Fontana’s work have focused on the study of the pictorial surface of his paintings. Consequently, to the best of our knowledge, this paper presents the first scientific investigation of gypsum objects made by this artist. These are the gypsum plaster casts made for the construction of the fifth door of the Milan Cathedral, Italy, which were discovered after 60 years, and which showed a green patina and chromatic discolorations. With the aim of understanding the microbiological or chemical nature of the stains, the surfaces of the tiles were investigated by microbiological analysis and analytical techniques including observations by optical, fluorescence and electron microscopy and spectroscopy. The investigated samples showed that the amount of microbiological cells in the stained area was negligible. Chemical analyses allowed the identification of compounds responsible for the chromatic alterations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Colonization of Cultural Heritage. Emerging Trends in the Protection of Cultural Properties—Novel Control Strategies and Preventive Approaches)

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Review

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21 pages, 4813 KiB

Open AccessReview

Physical and Mechanical Methods for the Removal of Lithobionts—A Review

by Daniela Pinna

Coatings 2024, 14(3), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14030272 - 23 Feb 2024

Viewed by 745

Abstract

This paper describes and discusses the results of scientific experiences of the physical and mechanical methods used to control and inhibit the growth of lichens and biofilms that grow on indoor and outdoor historical stone artworks. It provides an extensive selection and examination of international papers published in the last two decades on the issue. The great advantage of physical and mechanical methods lies in the lack of potential risks associated with the irreversible application of microbicides. Indeed, they do not introduce any harmful chemicals to humans, to the environment, or to heritage objects. This review focuses on the application of (i) electromagnetic radiation, (ii) high temperatures, (iii) lasers, and (iv) mechanical tools, and includes the main achievements, limitations, and potential applications of the examined studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Colonization of Cultural Heritage. Emerging Trends in the Protection of Cultural Properties—Novel Control Strategies and Preventive Approaches)

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34 pages, 11868 KiB

Open AccessReview

Eco-Sustainable Approaches to Prevent and/or Eradicate Fungal Biodeterioration on Easel Painting

by Agustí Sala-Luis, Haizea Oliveira-Urquiri, Pilar Bosch-Roig and Susana Martín-Rey

Coatings 2024, 14(1), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14010124 - 17 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1560

Abstract

Eliminating and controlling fungal biodeterioration is one of the most important challenges of easel painting conservation. Historically, the pathologies produced by biodeterioration agents had been treated with non-specific products or with biocides specially designed for conservation but risky for human health or the environment due to their toxicity. In recent years, the number of research that studied more respectful solutions for the disinfection of paintings has increased, contributing to society’s efforts to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Here, an overview of the biodeterioration issues of the easel paintings is presented, critically analyzing chemical and eco-sustainable approaches to prevent or eradicate biodeterioration. Concretely, Essential Oils and light radiations are studied in comparison with the most used chemical biocides in the field, including acids, alcohols, and quaternary ammonium salts. This review describes those strategies’ biocidal mechanisms, efficiency, and reported applications in vitro assays on plates, mockups, and real scale. Benefits and drawbacks are evaluated, including workability, easel painting material alterations, health risks, and environmental sustainability. This review shows innovative and eco-friendly methods from an easel painting conservation perspective, detecting its challenges and opportunities to develop biocontrol strategies to substitute traditional chemical products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Colonization of Cultural Heritage. Emerging Trends in the Protection of Cultural Properties—Novel Control Strategies and Preventive Approaches)

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Other

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8 pages, 1430 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Identification of Bacterial Communities Involved in Bioweathering Crusts on Limestone Sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes

by Chaolong Ma, Zilong Fang, Xinjian Li and Xiaobo Liu

Coatings 2023, 13(9), 1506; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13091506 - 25 Aug 2023

Viewed by 857

Abstract

Bioweathering crusts are widely distributed on the limestone sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. However, information on microbial communities in this archaeological site is missing. To fill this gap, we identified bacterial communities involved in the formation of bioweathering crusts. The composition analysis showed that Cyanobacteria, Acidobacteria, Chloroflexi, Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, and Planctomycetota are the major components of the bacterial communities in the crusts. Cyanobacteria might be one of the major contributors to the formation of the crusts. A culture-based analysis indicated the presence of bacterial isolates (e.g., Enterobacter sp. and Bacillus sp.) with a potential role in bioprotection. Moreover, five types of biogenic organic acids were detected in the crusts, implying a consequence of organic acid corrosion. Scanning electron microscopy analysis further confirmed microbial penetration into the stone monuments with a biomechanical attack. Our reports provide a microbiological reference for heritage conservators to treat bioweathering crust. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Colonization of Cultural Heritage. Emerging Trends in the Protection of Cultural Properties—Novel Control Strategies and Preventive Approaches)

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