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Effect of Climate Change on Salmonid Fishes in Rivers
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Effect of Climate Change on Salmonid Fishes in Rivers

A special issue of Fishes (ISSN 2410-3888). This special issue belongs to the section "Biology and Ecology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 September 2023) | Viewed by 23647

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Bror Jonsson

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Sognsveien 68, 0855 Oslo, Norway
Interests: fish ecology; fish bioenergetics; fish behaviour; life history; fisheries

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Climate change is a serious threat, especially to cold-adapted organisms. Among these, salmonid fishes are highly vulnerable to global warming, not only at their southern edge of distribution, but throughout the temperate climate zone. With climate warming, populations go extinct, population sizes decline and sub-lethal effects with phenotypic, epigenetic and genetic changes are observed. These include changes in the distribution, physiology, behaviour, life history and ecology of these wild populations and species. For instance, metabolic rate, growth and body size change; tendencies and timings of migrations are altered; and exotic species spread, with consequences on interspecific competition and changed threats from parasites, diseases and predators. Habitat changes occur due to an altered thermal climate, as well as changes in water depth, flow, feeding opportunities, substrate stability, oxygen concentration, particle transport and the turbidity of the water. It is important to document how these changes influence salmonid populations to reveal causes and effects, and make predictions to foresee how salmonid communities will change in the future to improve our ability to perform the proper management of populations and habitats.

This Special Issue aims to publish high-quality, novel research on the ecological effects of climate change on salmonid fishes. Manuscripts on direct climatic effects and those carried over from earlier environmental influence will be considered. Population studies as well as those on interspecific relationships are appropriate. We welcome submissions of original field as well as laboratory research. The manuscripts may be full research articles, short communications, or review articles giving directions for future research or suggestions on how to better manage populations in a changed, future climate.

Prof. Dr. Bror Jonsson
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Fishes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 179 KiB  
Editorial
The Effect of Climate Change on Salmonid Fishes in Rivers
by Bror Jonsson
Fishes 2024, 9(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes9010029 - 08 Jan 2024
Viewed by 1378
Abstract
Climate warming is a serious threat to many organisms, such as cold-adapted ectotherms [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Climate Change on Salmonid Fishes in Rivers)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

14 pages, 7394 KiB  
Article
Expected Climate Change in the High Arctic—Good or Bad for Arctic Charr?
by Martin A. Svenning, Eigil T. Bjørvik, Jane A. Godiksen, Johan Hammar, Jack Kohler, Reidar Borgstrøm and Nigel G. Yoccoz
Fishes 2024, 9(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes9010008 - 23 Dec 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1539
Abstract
Lakes in the High Arctic are characterized by their low water temperature, long-term ice cover, low levels of nutrients, and low biodiversity. These conditions mean that minor climatic changes may be of great importance to Arctic freshwater organisms, including fish, by influencing vital [...] Read more.
Lakes in the High Arctic are characterized by their low water temperature, long-term ice cover, low levels of nutrients, and low biodiversity. These conditions mean that minor climatic changes may be of great importance to Arctic freshwater organisms, including fish, by influencing vital life history parameters such as individual growth rates. In this study, Arctic charr sampled from two Svalbard lakes (78–79° N) over the period 1960–2008 provided back-calculated length-at-age information extending over six decades, covering both warm and cold spells. The estimated annual growth in young-of-the-year (YOY) Arctic charr correlated positively with an increasing air temperature in summer. This increase is likely due to the higher water temperature during the ice-free period, and also to some extent, due to the winter air temperature; this is probably due to thinner ice being formed in mild winters and the subsequent earlier ice break-up. However, years with higher snow accumulation correlated with slower growth rates, which may be due to delayed ice break-up and thus a shorter summer growing season. More than 30% of the growth in YOY charr could be explained specifically by air temperature and snow accumulation in the two Arctic charr populations. This indicated that juvenile Svalbard Arctic charr may experience increased growth rates in a future warmer climate, although future increases in precipitation may contradict the positive effects of higher temperatures to some extent. In the longer term, a warmer climate may lead to the complete loss of many glaciers in western Svalbard; therefore, rivers may dry out, thus hindering migration between salt water and fresh water for migratory fish. In the worst-case scenario, the highly valuable and attractive anadromous Arctic charr populations could eventually disappear from the Svalbard lake systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Climate Change on Salmonid Fishes in Rivers)
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16 pages, 1625 KiB  
Article
Winter Behavior of Juvenile Brown Trout in a Changing Climate: How Do Light and Ice Cover Affect Encounters with Instream Predators?
by Karl Filipsson, Veronika Åsman, Larry Greenberg, Martin Österling, Johan Watz and Eva Bergman
Fishes 2023, 8(10), 521; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes8100521 - 20 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1121
Abstract
During winter, stream fishes are vulnerable to semi-aquatic predators like mammals and birds and reduce encounters by being active in darkness or under surface ice. Less is known about the behavior of fishes towards instream piscivorous fishes. Here, we examined how surface ice [...] Read more.
During winter, stream fishes are vulnerable to semi-aquatic predators like mammals and birds and reduce encounters by being active in darkness or under surface ice. Less is known about the behavior of fishes towards instream piscivorous fishes. Here, we examined how surface ice and light affected the anti-predator behavior of juvenile brown trout (Salmo trutta Linnaeus, 1758) in relation to piscivorous burbot (Lota lota Linnaeus, 1758) and northern pike (Esox lucius Linnaeus, 1758) at 4 °C in experimental flumes. Trout had lower foraging and swimming activity and spent more time sheltering when predators were present than when absent. In daylight, trout’s swimming activity was not affected by predators, whereas in darkness trout were less active when predators were present. Trout consumed more drifting prey during the day when ice was present, and they positioned themselves further upstream when under ice cover, regardless of light conditions. Trout stayed closer to conspecifics under ice, but only in the presence of pike. Piscivorous fishes thus constitute an essential part of the predatory landscape of juvenile trout in winter, and thus loss of ice cover caused by climate warming will likely affect trout’s interactions with predators. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Climate Change on Salmonid Fishes in Rivers)
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15 pages, 5354 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Trends in Freshwater and Marine Growth Patterns in Three Sub-Arctic Atlantic Salmon Populations
by Nico Alioravainen, Panu Orell and Jaakko Erkinaro
Fishes 2023, 8(9), 441; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes8090441 - 30 Aug 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1403
Abstract
The rapid warming of the Northern hemisphere has especially challenged the evolvability of anadromous fish species, such as Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), which must cope with drastically different environments depending on their life-history stage. We studied the long-term trends in, and [...] Read more.
The rapid warming of the Northern hemisphere has especially challenged the evolvability of anadromous fish species, such as Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), which must cope with drastically different environments depending on their life-history stage. We studied the long-term trends in, and the effects of environmental factors and life-history traits on, Atlantic salmon growth rates in both freshwater and in the ocean using c. 35,000 scale samples collected across 48 years from spawners returning to three tributaries of the subarctic River Teno in the northernmost parts of Finland and Norway (70° N). The freshwater growth has decreased in all three populations and spending more than three juvenile years in freshwater before the sea migration comes at the expense of growth. On the other hand, returning mature salmon (one-sea-winter, 1SW) showed increased growth at the sea with increasing marine temperatures, which results in larger sizes at return in 1SW spawners. We did not observe such trends in growth rates in larger, two-sea-winter salmon. Here, we report the contrasting responses in Atlantic salmon growth rates to a warming climate depending on the life-history stage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Climate Change on Salmonid Fishes in Rivers)
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11 pages, 1630 KiB  
Article
Increased Temperature and Discharge Influence Overwinter Growth and Survival of Juvenile Salmonids in a Hydropeaking River: Simulating Effects of Climate Change Using Individual-Based Modelling
by Johan Watz, Joel Schill, Louis Addo, John J. Piccolo and Mahboobeh Hajiesmaeili
Fishes 2023, 8(6), 323; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes8060323 - 18 Jun 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1191
Abstract
Climate change causes warming of rivers and may increase discharge, particularly during winter. Downstream of hydropower plants, fluctuating water temperature and flow create dynamic overwintering conditions for juvenile salmonids. We used inSTREAM 7.2-SD to simulate the effects of increased temperature (+2 °C) and [...] Read more.
Climate change causes warming of rivers and may increase discharge, particularly during winter. Downstream of hydropower plants, fluctuating water temperature and flow create dynamic overwintering conditions for juvenile salmonids. We used inSTREAM 7.2-SD to simulate the effects of increased temperature (+2 °C) and discharge (+10%) on the overwinter growth and mortality of one-summer- and two-summer-old Atlantic salmon and brown trout in a river with a hydropeaking flow regime in a 2 × 2 design with replicated simulations. Water temperature had a major positive relationship with growth for both species and year classes, whereas increased flow alone had no major general effect on overwinter growth. For one-summer-old trout experiencing the high temperature regime, however, increased flow resulted in reduced growth. There were no major effects from temperature and flow on the survival rate of the two-summer-old fishes. On the other hand, there were significant interaction effects for the one-summer-olds, indicating that the effect of flow depended on temperature. For one-summer-old salmon, high flow resulted in increased survival in the low temperature regime, whereas it resulted in reduced survival in high temperature. In contrast, for one-summer-old trout, high flow resulted in reduced survival in the low temperature regime and increased survival in the high temperature. Different hydropower operation alternatives may interact with warming, affecting the relative competitive abilities of stream salmonids. Ecological models that predict the effects of different environmental conditions, such as temperature and flow regimes, may offer insight into such effects when in situ experiments are not feasible. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Climate Change on Salmonid Fishes in Rivers)
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21 pages, 2276 KiB  
Article
A Benchmark for Atlantic Salmon Conservation: Genetic Diversity and Structure in a Southern European Glacial Refuge before the Climate Changed
by Ana Almodóvar, Graciela G. Nicola, Daniel Ayllón, Sheila Leal, Daniel F. Marchán and Benigno Elvira
Fishes 2023, 8(6), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes8060321 - 16 Jun 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1415
Abstract
Atlantic salmon Salmo salar supports highly valuable commercial and recreational fisheries in Europe, but its stocks are currently overexploited and threatened by climate change. Its southernmost populations (in northern Spain) play a key role in conserving the species’ original genetic diversity, which is [...] Read more.
Atlantic salmon Salmo salar supports highly valuable commercial and recreational fisheries in Europe, but its stocks are currently overexploited and threatened by climate change. Its southernmost populations (in northern Spain) play a key role in conserving the species’ original genetic diversity, which is endangered due to decades-long (1970s to 1990s) massive stocking with non-native stocks. Their decline is well documented, but the effect of stock transfer and conservation efforts is unclear. Nine microsatellite loci were amplified from archival samples (scales from 1958–1959) from eight Spanish rivers to analyse the species’ natural genetic dynamics before its decline started. Allelic richness was high in the historical populations (the 1950s) and above most contemporary estimates. Private alleles were found in most rivers, indicating high local uniqueness and relative isolation among river basins. Some alleles are regional markers since they are rare or absent from contemporary northern European populations. Effective population size suggested good conservation status, with higher values than those estimated for contemporary populations. Strong population structure and genetic differentiation between rivers were found, with limited gene flow, restricted to geographically close populations. Our estimates of historical genetic diversity and structure from southernmost salmon populations are a powerful benchmark to guide conservation programs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Climate Change on Salmonid Fishes in Rivers)
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12 pages, 1151 KiB  
Article
High-Temperature Stress Induces Autophagy in Rainbow Trout Skeletal Muscle
by Alfredo Molina, Phillip Dettleff, Valentina Valenzuela-Muñoz, Cristian Gallardo-Escarate and Juan Antonio Valdés
Fishes 2023, 8(6), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes8060303 - 06 Jun 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1938
Abstract
Ectothermic animals, such as teleosts, have increasingly been exposed to stressful high-temperature events due to global warming. Currently, the effects of thermal stress on skeletal muscle, a key tissue for fish growth, are unknown. This study examined the impact of high-temperature stress on [...] Read more.
Ectothermic animals, such as teleosts, have increasingly been exposed to stressful high-temperature events due to global warming. Currently, the effects of thermal stress on skeletal muscle, a key tissue for fish growth, are unknown. This study examined the impact of high-temperature stress on the skeletal muscle transcriptome of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in control (15 °C) and high-temperature (20 °C) conditions. Additionally, we examined the plasmatic levels of cortisol, glucose, and creatine kinase activity, and examined oxidative damage and autophagy activation in skeletal muscle. High-temperature stress induced significant increases in cortisol and glucose plasmatic levels. Nevertheless, no changes were observed in creatine kinase activity in plasma and skeletal muscle oxidation. Skeletal muscle RNA was isolated and sequenced using the HiSeq Illumina platform. A total of 383,796,290 reads were mapped onto the reference rainbow trout genome. The transcriptomic analysis showed that 293 genes were upregulated in the high-temperature group, mainly associated with autophagosome assembly, amino acid transport, and the glutamine metabolic process. On the other hand, 119 genes were downregulated in the high-temperature group, mainly associated with digestion, proteolysis, and the muscle contraction process. In addition, RT-qPCR of differentially expressed representative genes and Western blot analysis of LC3-II/LC3-I levels confirmed skeletal muscle autophagy induced by high temperature. This study sheds light on intriguing facets of the adaptive response of rainbow trout skeletal muscle to high-temperature stress and provides significant insights into the physiology of autophagy in teleosts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Climate Change on Salmonid Fishes in Rivers)
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Review

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29 pages, 19511 KiB  
Review
The Role of Cold-Water Thermal Refuges for Stream Salmonids in a Changing Climate—Experiences from Atlantic Canada
by Tommi Linnansaari, Antóin M. O’Sullivan, Cindy Breau, Emily M. Corey, Elise N. Collet, R. Allen Curry and Richard A. Cunjak
Fishes 2023, 8(9), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes8090471 - 21 Sep 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1870
Abstract
Thermal refuges are becoming increasingly influential for dictating the population status and spatial distribution of cold-water stenotherm salmonids in the mid- to southern extent of their range. The global climate is predicted to continue to warm, and therefore, the overall thermal suitability of [...] Read more.
Thermal refuges are becoming increasingly influential for dictating the population status and spatial distribution of cold-water stenotherm salmonids in the mid- to southern extent of their range. The global climate is predicted to continue to warm, and therefore, the overall thermal suitability of freshwater habitats for stream salmonids is predicted to decline in concert. However, stream and river thermal heterogeneity will offer considerable resiliency for these populations. Thermal refuges are formed by many physical processes; common natural refuges include cold tributary plumes, groundwater springs, alcoves, and hyporheic upwellings. However, many anthropogenically formed refuges (such as stratified reservoirs or cold-water tailrace outflows) also exist in hydropower-regulated rivers. The significance of these refuges to stream salmonids depends on their size and temperature differential, but also other habitat characteristics such as their depth, flow velocity, Froude number, and many biotic factors within the refuges. Modern technologies such as drone-mounted thermal infrared cameras and other remote sensing techniques allow for the efficient identification of such refuges, and inexpensive options include the identification of refuges during ice cover using orthophotographs. Behavioural thermoregulation, i.e., salmonids aggregating in cold-water refuges, can be either facultative or obligate and the timing of these events is governed by life stage, species, and population-specific physiologically regulated cumulative thresholds that are inherently related to the recent thermal history, or hysteresis, of each individual. Salmonids appear to have an excellent spatial cognition for locating and relocating cold-water refuges, and their spatial distribution is largely affected by the availability of the cold-water refuges during the warm-water period in many thermally stressed rivers. Gregarious behaviour is the norm for salmonid fishes within the thermal refuges; however, the size/microhabitat hierarchy appears to dictate the within-refuge distribution at the micro-scale. There continues to be a great impetus for protecting—and in carefully determined cases creating—cold-water refuges in the future. A thorough understanding of what a “goldilocks” refuge is for various salmonids and their different life stages will be imperative as cold-water restoration is gaining popularity. Finally, disentangling the roles of the climate-induced and landscape activity-induced warming potential of fluvial freshwater will be important to ensure continued environmentally responsible landscape activities in future waterscapes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Climate Change on Salmonid Fishes in Rivers)
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19 pages, 1904 KiB  
Review
Potential Impact of Climate Change on Salmonid Smolt Ecology
by Teppo Vehanen, Tapio Sutela and Ari Huusko
Fishes 2023, 8(7), 382; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes8070382 - 24 Jul 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2233
Abstract
The migratory life history of anadromous salmonids requires successful migration between nursery, feeding, and spawning habitats. Smolting is the major transformation anadromous salmonids undergo before migration to feeding areas. It prepares juvenile fish for downstream migration and their entry to seawater. We reviewed [...] Read more.
The migratory life history of anadromous salmonids requires successful migration between nursery, feeding, and spawning habitats. Smolting is the major transformation anadromous salmonids undergo before migration to feeding areas. It prepares juvenile fish for downstream migration and their entry to seawater. We reviewed the effects of climate change on smolt ecology from the growth of juveniles in fresh water to early post-smolts in the sea to identify the potential effects of climate change on migratory salmonid populations during this period in their life history. The focus was especially on Atlantic salmon. The shift in suitable thermal conditions caused by climate change results in Atlantic salmon expanding their range northward, while at the southern edge of their distribution, populations struggle with high temperatures and occasional droughts. Climatic conditions, particularly warmer temperatures, affect growth during the freshwater river phase. Better growth in northern latitudes leads to earlier smolting. Thermal refuges, the areas of cooler water in the river, are important for salmonids impacted by climate change. Restoring and maintaining connectivity and a suitably diverse mosaic habitat in rivers are important for survival and growth throughout the range. The start of the smolt migration has shifted earlier as a response to rising water temperatures, which has led to concerns about a mismatch with optimal conditions for post-smolts in the sea, decreasing their survival. A wide smolt window allowing all migrating phenotypes from early to late migrants’ safe access to the sea is important in changing environmental conditions. This is also true for regulated rivers, where flow regulation practices cause selection pressures on migrating salmonid phenotypes. The freshwater life history also affects marine survival, and better collaboration across life stages and habitats is necessary among researchers and managers to boost smolt production in rivers. Proactive measures are recommended against population declines, including sustainable land use in the catchment, maintaining a diverse mosaic of habitats for salmonids, restoring flow and connectivity, and conserving key habitats. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Climate Change on Salmonid Fishes in Rivers)
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20 pages, 395 KiB  
Review
Thermal Effects on Ecological Traits of Salmonids
by Bror Jonsson
Fishes 2023, 8(7), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes8070337 - 25 Jun 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1937
Abstract
Here, I review thermal influences on metabolic rates and aerobic scope; growth; adult body size; and reproductive and behavioural traits, such as tendency and timing of the migration of salmonid fishes. A thermal window bounded by the upper and lower incipient lethal temperatures [...] Read more.
Here, I review thermal influences on metabolic rates and aerobic scope; growth; adult body size; and reproductive and behavioural traits, such as tendency and timing of the migration of salmonid fishes. A thermal window bounded by the upper and lower incipient lethal temperatures (UILT and LILT) determines where salmonids can survive. For most salmonids, LILT is close to 0 and UILT is between 20 and 30 °C. UILT and LILT are influenced by the acclimation temperature. Thermal tolerance is affected by fish size and ambient oxygen content, which decreases with increasing temperature. Standard metabolic rate (SMR), the energy required to maintain essential functions, increases with temperature, whereas maximum metabolic rate (MMR) increases with temperature until reaching a peak (pejus). Then, it decreases gradually to zero, i.e., the upper critical limit (TCrit). Aerobic scope (AS = MMR-SMR) reaches its maximum at the pejus temperature. Metabolic rates and aerobic scope can be modified by temperatures that the fish experiences during embryogenesis and possibly also as larvae and young fry. At maximum feeding, maximum growth increases to a point at or below the pejus temperature. The optimum temperature for growth decreases with reduced food intake and increased body size. As for metabolic rate, the growth rate is influenced by the temperature during embryonic development. In a warmer climate, adult body size is expected to decrease chiefly because of a younger age at maturity. Parental fish retained at a higher temperature during maturation produce larger eggs, and this change in egg size may also be transferred to next-generation offspring. Furthermore, embryogenesis in warmer water leads to larger gonad and egg sizes at maturity. Water temperature influences locomotion, foraging and migratory activity. In a warmer climate, juveniles migrate to the sea earlier in spring. In addition, higher embryo temperature leads to delayed return of adult salmon from the ocean. Thus, temperature affects life history traits of salmonid fishes, partly as a direct effect on metabolic rates and food consumption and partly induced as a phenotypically plastic effect. The phenotypically plastic response may preadapt offspring to perform better in the expected future thermal environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Climate Change on Salmonid Fishes in Rivers)
50 pages, 2487 KiB  
Review
A Comprehensive Review of the Impacts of Climate Change on Salmon: Strengths and Weaknesses of the Literature by Life Stage
by Lisa G. Crozier and Jared E. Siegel
Fishes 2023, 8(6), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes8060319 - 16 Jun 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5718
Abstract
As we confront novel environmental challenges, a full understanding of the physical and biological processes that govern species responses to climate change will help maintain biodiversity and support conservation measures that are more robust to irreducible uncertainty. However, climate impacts are so complex, [...] Read more.
As we confront novel environmental challenges, a full understanding of the physical and biological processes that govern species responses to climate change will help maintain biodiversity and support conservation measures that are more robust to irreducible uncertainty. However, climate impacts are so complex, and the literature on salmon and trout is so vast that researchers and decision makers scramble to make sense of it all. Therefore, we conducted a systematic literature review of climate impacts on salmon and anadromous trout as a resource for stakeholders, managers, and researchers. We reviewed studies published from 2010 to 2021 that address climate impacts on these fish and organized them in a database of 1169 physical and 1853 biological papers. Papers are labeled with keywords across eight categories related to subject matter and study methods. We compared the literature by biological process and life stage and used these comparisons to assess strengths and weaknesses. We then summarized expected phenotypic and genetic responses and management actions by life stage. Overall, we found the largest research gaps related to species interactions, behavioral responses, and effects that carry over across life stages. With this collection of the literature, we can better apply scarce conservation resources, fill knowledge gaps, and make informed decisions that do not ignore uncertainty. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Climate Change on Salmonid Fishes in Rivers)
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