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Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease 3.0

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A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Pathology, Diagnostics, and Therapeutics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2021) | Viewed by 32888

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Dr. Valeria Gasperi

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Department of Experimental Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
Interests: cancer biology; microRNAs; epigenetics; apoptosis and differentiation; platelets; inflammation; cell-to-cell crosstalk; bioactive lipids
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Dr. Isabella Savini

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Department of Experimental Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
Interests: nutrition; platelets; redox state; phenolic compounds; cardiovascular diseases; obesity; metabolic syndrome
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Dr. Maria Valeria Catani

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Department of Experimental Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
Interests: platelets; oxidative stress; cancer; vitamin C; blood coagulation; inflammation; apoptosis; bioactive lipids; redox-sensitive transcription factors; microRNAs
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Platelets are small anucleated cytoplasmic fragments derived from large megakaryocytes residing in bone marrow that are primarily recognized for their fundamental role in haemostasis and thrombosis. In response to vascular injury, platelets quickly adhere to sub-endothelial matrix proteins, through specific adhesion-signalling receptors whose activation leads to a cascade of events resulting in platelet spreading, granule secretion, aggregation and clot retraction.

To date, a large body of evidence has highlighted the ability of platelets to act as multifunctional cells, which actively influence a widespread range of apparently unrelated patho–physiological events. Platelets, indeed, play a central role in inflammation, an underlying cause in several pathologies (among them cardiovascular disease, obesity, metabolic syndrome and gastrointestinal diseases) as well as in infection, cancer, neurodegeneration and other brain dysfunctions.

For readers, this Special Issue, “Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease”, will provide an up-to-date description of the more intriguing aspects of platelet biology, highly relevant to human diseases.

Dr. Valeria Gasperi
Dr. Isabella Savini
Dr. Maria Valeria Catani
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Molecular Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. There is an Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal. For details about the APC please see here. Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

platelets
hemostasis
cancer
microRNA
inflammatory diseases
cell-to-cell crosstalk
endothelium
infection
brain disease

Related Special Issue

Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease 2023 in International Journal of Molecular Sciences (5 articles)

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 194 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease 3.0

by Maria Valeria Catani, Isabella Savini and Valeria Gasperi

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(10), 5530; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23105530 - 16 May 2022

Viewed by 896

Abstract

Zhao and Devine [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease 3.0)

Research

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11 pages, 4570 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Platelet-Rich Fibrin Decreases the Inflammatory Response of Mesenchymal Cells

by Zahra Kargarpour, Jila Nasirzade, Layla Panahipour, Richard J. Miron and Reinhard Gruber

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(21), 11333; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222111333 - 20 Oct 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2614

Abstract

Chronic inflammation is a pathological process where cells of the mesenchymal lineage become a major source of inflammatory mediators. Platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) has been shown to possess potent anti-inflammatory activity in macrophages, but its impact on mesenchymal cells has not been investigated. The aim of this study was, therefore, to expose mesenchymal cells to inflammatory cytokines together with lysates generated from liquid platelet-poor plasma (PPP), the cell-rich buffy coat layer (BC; concentrated-PRF or C-PRF), and the remaining red clot layer (RC), following centrifugation of blood. Heating PPP generates an albumin gel (Alb-gel) that when mixed back with C-PRF produces Alb-PRF. Membranes prepared from solid PRF were also subjected to lysis. We report here that lysates of PPP, BC, and PRF decreased the cytokine-induced expression of interleukin 6 (IL6) and nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in the bone marrow-derived ST2 cells. Consistently, PPP, BC, and PRF greatly decreased the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of p65 in ST2 cells. The inflammatory response caused by Pam3CSK4 was reduced accordingly. Moreover, PPP, BC, and PRF reduced the enhanced expression of inflammatory mediators IL6 and iNOS in 3T3-L1 pre-adipocyte mesenchymal cells, and iNOS and CCL5 in murine calvarial cells. Surprisingly, PRF lysates were not effective in reducing the inflammatory response of human gingival fibroblasts and HSC2 epithelial cells. The data from the present study suggest that both liquid PRF and solid PRF exert potent anti-inflammatory activity in murine mesenchymal cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease 3.0)

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16 pages, 23361 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rutaecarpine, an Alkaloid from Evodia rutaecarpa, Can Prevent Platelet Activation in Humans and Reduce Microvascular Thrombosis in Mice: Crucial Role of the PI3K/Akt/GSK3β Signal Axis through a Cyclic Nucleotides/VASP—Independent Mechanism

by Chun-Jen Huang, Wei-Chieh Huang, Wei-Ting Lin, Lan-Hsin Shu, Joen-Rong Sheu, Oanh-Thi Tran, Chih-Wei Hsia, Thanasekaran Jayakumar, Periyakali Saravana Bhavan, Cheng-Ying Hsieh and Chao-Chien Chang

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(20), 11109; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222011109 - 15 Oct 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2798

Abstract

The role of activated platelets in acute and chronic cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) is well established. Therefore, antiplatelet drugs significantly reduce the risk of severe CVDs. Evodia rutaecarpa (Wu-Chu-Yu) is a well-known Chinese medicine, and rutaecarpine (Rut) is a main bioactive component with substantial beneficial properties including vasodilation. To address a research gap, we investigated the inhibitory mechanisms of Rut in washed human platelets and experimental mice. At low concentrations (1–5 μM), Rut strongly inhibited collagen-induced platelet aggregation, whereas it exerted only a slight or no effect on platelets stimulated with other agonists (e.g., thrombin). Rut markedly inhibited P-selectin expression; adenosine triphosphate release; [Ca²⁺]i mobilization; hydroxyl radical formation; and phospholipase C (PLC)γ2/protein kinase C (PKC), mitogen-activated protein kinase, and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β) phosphorylation stimulated by collagen. SQ22536 (an adenylate cyclase inhibitor) or ODQ (a guanylate cyclase inhibitor) did not reverse Rut-mediated antiplatelet aggregation. Rut was not directly responding to vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein phosphorylation. Rut significantly increased the occlusion time of fluorescence irradiated thrombotic platelet plug formation. The findings demonstrated that Rut exerts a strong effect against platelet activation through the PLCγ2/PKC and PI3K/Akt/GSK3β pathways. Thus, Rut can be a potential therapeutic agent for thromboembolic disorders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease 3.0)

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13 pages, 3383 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fluorometric Quantification of Human Platelet Polyphosphate Using 4′,6-Diamidine-2-phenylindole Dihydrochloride: Applications in the Japanese Population

by Taisuke Watanabe, Yutaka Kitamura, Hachidai Aizawa, Hideo Masuki, Tetsuhiro Tsujino, Atsushi Sato, Hideo Kawabata, Kazushige Isobe, Koh Nakata and Tomoyuki Kawase

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(14), 7257; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22147257 - 6 Jul 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2373

Abstract

Polyphosphate (polyP), a biopolymer of inorganic phosphate, is widely distributed in living organisms. In platelets, polyP is released upon activation and plays important roles in coagulation and tissue regeneration. However, the lack of a specific quantification method has delayed the in-depth study of polyP. The fluorescent dye 4′,6-diamidine-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride (DAPI) has recently received attention as a promising probe for the visualization and quantification of cellular polyP levels. In this study, we further optimized quantification conditions and applied this protocol in quantification of platelet polyP levels in a Japanese population. Blood samples were collected from non-smoking, healthy Japanese subjects (23 males, 23 females). Washed platelets were fixed and probed with DAPI for fluorometric determination. PolyP levels per platelet count were significantly higher in women than that in men. A moderate negative correlation between age and polyP levels was found in women. Responsiveness to CaCl₂ stimulation was also significantly higher in women than that in men. Overall, our optimized protocol requires neither purification nor degradation steps, reducing both the time and bias for reproducible quantification. Thus, we suggest that despite its low specificity, this DAPI-based protocol would be useful in routine laboratory testing to quantify platelet polyP levels efficiently and economically. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease 3.0)

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20 pages, 3482 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Molecular Aspects of Disturbed Platelet Activation through ADP/P2Y₁₂ Pathway in Multiple Sclerosis

by Angela Dziedzic, Elzbieta Miller, Joanna Saluk-Bijak, Marta Niwald and Michal Bijak

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(12), 6572; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22126572 - 18 Jun 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2265

Abstract

Epidemiological studies confirm a high risk of ischemic events in secondary-progressive multiple sclerosis (SP MS) patients, directly associated with an increased level of pro-thrombotic activity of platelets. Our work aimed to verify potential molecular abnormalities of the platelet P2Y₁₂ receptor expression and functionality as a cause of an increased risk of thromboembolism observed in the course of MS. We have demonstrated an enhanced platelet reactivity in response to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) in SP MS relative to controls. We have also shown an increased mRNA expression for the P2RY12 gene in both platelets and megakaryocytes, as well as enhanced density of these receptors on the platelet surface. We postulate that one of the reasons for the elevated risk of ischemic events observed in MS may be a genetically or phenotypically reinforced expression of the platelet P2Y₁₂ receptor. In order to analyze the effect of the PAR1 (protease activated receptor type 1) signaling pathway on the expression level of P2Y₁₂, we also analyzed the correlation parameters between P2Y₁₂ expression and the markers of platelet activation in MS induced by selective PAR1 agonist (thrombin receptor activating peptide-6, TRAP-6). Identifying the molecular base responsible for the enlarged pro-thrombotic activity of platelets in SP MS could contribute to the implementation of prevention and targeted treatment, reducing the development of cardiovascular disorders in the course of the disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease 3.0)

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16 pages, 2519 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cellular Response to Individual Components of the Platelet Concentrate

by Vera Sovkova, Karolina Vocetkova, Věra Hedvičáková, Veronika Hefka Blahnová, Matěj Buzgo, Evzen Amler and Eva Filová

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(9), 4539; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22094539 - 26 Apr 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2148

Abstract

Platelet concentrates and especially their further product platelet lysate, are widely used as a replacement for cell culturing. Platelets contain a broad spectrum of growth factors and bioactive molecules that affect cellular fate. However, the cellular response to individual components of the human platelet concentrate is still unclear. The aim of this study was to observe cellular behavior according to the individual components of platelet concentrates. The bioactive molecule content was determined. The cells were supplemented with a medium containing 8% (v/v) of platelet proteins in plasma, pure platelet proteins in deionized water, and pure plasma. The results showed a higher concentration of fibrinogen, albumin, insulin growth factor I (IGF-1), keratinocyte growth factor (KGF), and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), in the groups containing plasma. On the other hand, chemokine RANTES and platelet-derived growth factor bb (PDGF-bb), were higher in the groups containing platelet proteins. The groups containing both plasma and plasma proteins showed the most pronounced proliferation and viability of mesenchymal stem cells and fibroblasts. The platelet proteins alone were not sufficient to provide optimal cell growth and viability. A synergic effect of platelet proteins and plasma was observed. The data indicated the importance of plasma in platelet lysate for cell growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease 3.0)

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15 pages, 5418 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Antithrombotic Agent Pterostilbene Interferes with Integrin α_IIbβ₃-Mediated Inside-Out and Outside-In Signals in Human Platelets

by Wei-Chieh Huang, Kao-Chang Lin, Chih-Wei Hsia, Chih-Hsuan Hsia, Ting-Yu Chen, Periyakali Saravana Bhavan, Joen-Rong Sheu and Shaw-Min Hou

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(7), 3643; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22073643 - 31 Mar 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2252

Abstract

Platelets play a crucial role in the physiology of primary hemostasis and pathological processes such as arterial thrombosis; thus, developing a therapeutic target that prevents platelet activation can reduce arterial thrombosis. Pterostilbene (PTE) has remarkable pharmacological activities, including anticancer and neuroprotection. Few studies have reported the effects of pterostilbene on platelet activation. Thus, we examined the inhibitory mechanisms of pterostilbene in human platelets and its role in vascular thrombosis prevention in mice. At low concentrations (2–8 μM), pterostilbene strongly inhibited collagen-induced platelet aggregation. Furthermore, pterostilbene markedly diminished Lyn, Fyn, and Syk phosphorylation and hydroxyl radical formation stimulated by collagen. Moreover, PTE directly hindered integrin α_IIbβ₃ activation through interfering with PAC-1 binding stimulated by collagen. In addition, pterostilbene affected integrin α_IIbβ₃-mediated outside-in signaling, such as integrin β₃, Src, and FAK phosphorylation, and reduced the number of adherent platelets and the single platelet spreading area on immobilized fibrinogen as well as thrombin-stimulated fibrin clot retraction. Furthermore, pterostilbene substantially prolonged the occlusion time of thrombotic platelet plug formation in mice. This study demonstrated that pterostilbene exhibits a strong activity against platelet activation through the inhibition of integrin α_IIbβ₃-mediated inside-out and outside-in signaling, suggesting that pterostilbene can serve as a therapeutic agent for thromboembolic disorders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease 3.0)

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12 pages, 2282 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of MgCl₂ and GdCl₃ on ORAI1 Expression and Store-Operated Ca²⁺ Entry in Megakaryocytes

by Kuo Zhou, Xuexue Zhu, Ke Ma, Jibin Liu, Bernd Nürnberg, Meinrad Gawaz and Florian Lang

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(7), 3292; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22073292 - 24 Mar 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2097

Abstract

In chronic kidney disease, hyperphosphatemia upregulates the Ca²⁺ channel ORAI and its activating Ca²⁺ sensor STIM in megakaryocytes and platelets. ORAI1 and STIM1 accomplish store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE) and play a key role in platelet activation. Signaling linking phosphate to upregulation of ORAI1 and STIM1 includes transcription factor NFAT5 and serum and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase SGK1. In vascular smooth muscle cells, the effect of hyperphosphatemia on ORAI1/STIM1 expression and SOCE is suppressed by Mg²⁺ and the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) agonist Gd³⁺. The present study explored whether sustained exposure to Mg²⁺ or Gd³⁺ interferes with the phosphate-induced upregulation of NFAT5, SGK1, ORAI1,2,3, STIM1,2 and SOCE in megakaryocytes. To this end, human megakaryocytic Meg-01 cells were treated with 2 mM ß-glycerophosphate for 24 h in the absence and presence of either 1.5 mM MgCl₂ or 50 µM GdCl₃. Transcript levels were estimated utilizing q-RT-PCR, protein abundance by Western blotting, cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) by Fura-2 fluorescence and SOCE from the increase in [Ca²⁺]_i following re-addition of extracellular Ca²⁺ after store depletion with thapsigargin (1 µM). As a result, Mg²⁺ and Gd³⁺ upregulated CaSR and blunted or virtually abolished the phosphate-induced upregulation of NFAT5, SGK1, ORAI1,2,3, STIM1,2 and SOCE in megakaryocytes. In conclusion, Mg²⁺ and the CaSR agonist Gd³⁺ interfere with phosphate-induced dysregulation of [Ca²⁺]_i in megakaryocytes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease 3.0)

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11 pages, 4214 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

In Ovarian Cancer Multicellular Spheroids, Platelet Releasate Promotes Growth, Expansion of ALDH+ and CD133+ Cancer Stem Cells, and Protection against the Cytotoxic Effects of Cisplatin, Carboplatin and Paclitaxel

by Naike Casagrande, Cinzia Borghese, Francesco Agostini, Cristina Durante, Mario Mazzucato, Alfonso Colombatti and Donatella Aldinucci

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(6), 3019; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22063019 - 16 Mar 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 2632

Abstract

A high platelet count is associated with a poor prognosis in ovarian cancer (OvCa). Despite good clinical responses with platinating agents in combination with taxanes, numerous OvCa patients relapse due to chemotherapy resistance. Here, we report that treatment of OvCa cells A2780, OVCAR5 and MDAH with releasate from activated platelets (PR) promoted multicellular tumor spheroid (MCTS) formation. These OvCa-MCTSs had increased percentages of CD133+ and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH)+ cells, bona fide markers of OvCa cancer stem cells (CSCs). PR increased OVCAR5- and MDAH-MCTS viability and decreased the cytotoxic and pro-apoptotic effects of paclitaxel, cisplatin and carboplatin. PR increased the volume of spontaneously formed OVCAR8-MCTSs and counteracted their size reduction due to cisplatin, carboplatin and paclitaxel treatment. PR promoted the survival of ALDH+ and CD133+ OvCa cells during cisplatin, carboplatin and paclitaxel treatment. In conclusion, molecules and growth factors released by activated platelets (EGF, PDGF, TGF-β, IGF and CCL5) may protect tumor cells from chemotherapy by promoting the expansion of ALDH+ and CD133+ OvCa-CSCs, favoring drug resistance and tumor relapse. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease 3.0)

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Platelet-Released Factors: Their Role in Viral Disease and Applications for Extracellular Vesicle (EV) Therapy

by Brita Ostermeier, Natalia Soriano-Sarabia and Sanjay B. Maggirwar

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(4), 2321; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23042321 - 19 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3843

Abstract

Platelets, which are small anuclear cell fragments, play important roles in thrombosis and hemostasis, but also actively release factors that can both suppress and induce viral infections. Platelet-released factors include sCD40L, microvesicles (MVs), and alpha granules that have the capacity to exert either pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory effects depending on the virus. These factors are prime targets for use in extracellular vesicle (EV)-based therapy due to their ability to reduce viral infections and exert anti-inflammatory effects. While there are some studies regarding platelet microvesicle-based (PMV-based) therapy, there is still much to learn about PMVs before such therapy can be used. This review provides the background necessary to understand the roles of platelet-released factors, how these factors might be useful in PMV-based therapy, and a critical discussion of current knowledge of platelets and their role in viral diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease 3.0)

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12 pages, 614 KiB

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The Missing Pieces to the Cold-Stored Platelet Puzzle

by Hanqi Zhao and Dana V. Devine

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(3), 1100; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23031100 - 20 Jan 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2899

Abstract

Cold-stored platelets are making a comeback. They were abandoned in the late 1960s in favor of room-temperature stored platelets due to the need for longer post-transfusion platelet recoverability and survivability in patients with chronic thrombocytopenia. However, the current needs for platelet transfusions are rapidly changing. Today, more platelets are given to patients who are actively bleeding, such as ones receiving cardiac surgeries. It has been established that cold-stored platelets are more hemostatically effective, have reduced bacterial growth, and have longer potential shelf lives. These compelling characteristics led to the recent interest in bringing back cold-stored platelets to the blood systems. However, before reinstating cold-stored platelets in the clinics again, a thorough investigation of in vitro storage characteristics and in vivo transfusion effects is required. This review aims to provide an update on the recent research efforts into the storage characteristics and functions of cold-stored platelets using modern investigative tools. We will also discuss efforts made to improve cold-stored platelets to be a better and safer product. Finally, we will finish off with discussing the relevance of in vitro data to in vivo transfusion results and provide insights and directions for future investigations of cold-stored platelets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease 3.0)

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25 pages, 1833 KiB

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Proteomics: A Tool to Study Platelet Function

by Olga Shevchuk, Antonija Jurak Begonja, Stepan Gambaryan, Matthias Totzeck, Tienush Rassaf, Tobias B. Huber, Andreas Greinacher, Thomas Renne and Albert Sickmann

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(9), 4776; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22094776 - 30 Apr 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4947

Abstract

Platelets are components of the blood that are highly reactive, and they quickly respond to multiple physiological and pathophysiological processes. In the last decade, it became clear that platelets are the key components of circulation, linking hemostasis, innate, and acquired immunity. Protein composition, localization, and activity are crucial for platelet function and regulation. The current state of mass spectrometry-based proteomics has tremendous potential to identify and quantify thousands of proteins from a minimal amount of material, unravel multiple post-translational modifications, and monitor platelet activity during drug treatments. This review focuses on the role of proteomics in understanding the molecular basics of the classical and newly emerging functions of platelets. including the recently described role of platelets in immunology and the development of COVID-19.The state-of-the-art proteomic technologies and their application in studying platelet biogenesis, signaling, and storage are described, and the potential of newly appeared trapped ion mobility spectrometry (TIMS) is highlighted. Additionally, implementing proteomic methods in platelet transfusion medicine, and as a diagnostic and prognostic tool, is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Research on Platelet Activity in Health and Disease 3.0)

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