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3D & 4D Printing in Engineering Applications

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Manufacturing Processes and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 January 2024) | Viewed by 17367

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Prof. Dr. Tomasz Kozior

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Faculty of Mechatronics and Mechanical Engineering, Department of Metrology and Unconventional Manufacturing Methods, KUT—Kielce University of Technology, 25-314 Kielce, Poland
Interests: 3D/4D printing; additive manufacturing; FDM/FFF; PJM; SLS; SLM; metrology; tribology
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Over the last 20 years, 3D printing has greatly evolved, and this applies both to the development of new technologies of additive manufacturing, the chemistry of the materials used, increasing the metrological accuracy of manufactured objects by improving the design of 3D printers and by optimizing, as well as increasing the mechanical and tribological properties of the manufactured objects. Currently, the range of materials used is so large that it includes both plastics, ceramics, and metals, including materials with new very advanced properties. 3D printing using new intelligent materials, very often based on composites, and innovative design and technological solutions have evolved into a new concept of the so-called 4D printing. The new concept assumes taking into account another fourth dimension - time. Under the influence of an appropriate stimulus of 3D printing, the structure changes its shape or properties by implementing the concepts of 4D printing. It can be said that 4D printing is a kind of new manufacturing philosophy based on 3D printing.

The presented Special Issue concerns the publication of innovative scientific research, review articles, and communications related to modern technologies of additive manufacturing and its materials, taking into account innovative tools that also fit into the realities of industrial transformation to Industry 4.0. The presented Special Issue is aimed at the publication of the results of both theoretical and experimental research including topics including:

3D/4D printing;
Rapid prototyping
Unconventional manufacturing;
Metrology in 3D printing;
Surface texture analysis;
Quality of 3D/4D printed parts;
Tribology in 3D printing;
Mechanical properties investigation;
Composites materials;
3D/4D printing engineering applications;
3D printing in Industry 4.0;
Robotics in 3D printing;
Novel 3D printing systems;
Review of progress in 3D/4D printing;
Manufacturing problems;
Machining of 3D printed elements;
Process control;
Simulation analysis.

The Special Issue was created in connection with the international conference "Rapid Prototyping", which will be held in Kielce, Poland on September 19-20, 2022. The link to the event is:

www.szybkieprototypowanie.eu.

However, we encourage all researchers, including those who do not plan to participate in the event, to submit their original research papers in the presented Special Issue.

Dr. Tomasz Kozior
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

3D/4D printing
metrology
unconventional manufacturing
industry 4.0
process control
tribology
composites materials
polymers in 3D printing
simulation

Related Special Issue

3D & 4D Printing in Engineering Applications, 2nd Edition in Materials

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

17 pages, 4724 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation of, Optimization of, and Experimentation with Small Heat Pipes Produced Using Selective Laser Melting Technology

by Jianfeng Zhou, Lai Teng, Yinyi Shen and Zhonghe Jin

Materials 2023, 16(21), 6946; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16216946 - 29 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1253

Abstract

With the development of microsatellite technology, the heat generated by onboard components is increasing, leading to a growing demand for improved thermal dissipation in small satellites. Metal powder additive manufacturing technology offers the possibility of customizing and miniaturizing heat pipes to meet the specific requirements of small satellites. This article introduces a small-scale heat pipe designed using selective laser melting (SLM) technology. The heat pipe’s material, structure, and internal working fluid were determined based on mission requirements. Subsequently, the SolidWorks 2021 software was used for heat pipe modeling, and the ANSYS 2021R2 finite element analysis software was employed to simulate the heat transfer performance of the designed heat pipe, confirming its feasibility. The heat pipe’s structure was optimized using multi-objective regression analysis, considering various structural parameters, such as the channel diameter, vapor chamber height, and narrow gap width. The simulation results demonstrate that the optimized heat pipe achieved a 10.5% reduction in thermal resistance and an 11.6% increase in equivalent thermal conductivity compared to the original heat pipe. Furthermore, compared to conventional metal heat-conducting rods, the optimized heat pipe showed a 38.5% decrease in thermal resistance and a 62.19% increase in equivalent thermal conductivity. The heat pipe was then fabricated using a 3D printer (EOS M280), and a vacuum experimental system was established to investigate its heat transfer characteristics. The experimental results show that the heat pipe operated most efficiently at a heating power of 20 W, reached its maximum heat transfer capacity at 22 W, and had an optimal fill ratio of 30%. These results highlight the excellent performance of the heat pipe and the promising application prospects for SLM technology in the field of small satellites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D & 4D Printing in Engineering Applications)

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14 pages, 7443 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conceptual Design and Numerical Validation of a Carbon-Based Ink Injector

by Arleth Ortega-Gutiérrez, Job Eli Escobar-Flores, Mario Alberto Grave-Capistrán, Noé López-Perrusquia, Marco Antonio Doñu-Ruiz, Armando Oropeza-Osornio and Christopher René Torres-SanMiguel

Materials 2023, 16(19), 6545; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16196545 - 3 Oct 2023

Viewed by 995

Abstract

This paper shows the design of an injector, using carbon nanotubes as inkjet material, implemented in a 3D printer. According to the available literature, few injectors are capable of depositing material. Due to the lack of information, the central part of this research is to develop a suitable device for ink injection that is capable of applying the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) method to print nanomaterial ink. The injector was designed using a CAD program based on an open-source desktop 3D printer, which allows it to be modified according to the needs of the injector. This prototype was manufactured in aluminum alloy 7075T6. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) were carried out to analyze the behavior of the fluid when it passes through the injector, obtaining parameters such as pressure, velocity, and vorticity. An experimental matrix of the injector operation was carried out to achieve an adequate printing speed. The results show that the optimum speed was 250 ms, considering that a temperature of 100 °C is needed in the heated bed to dry the ink so that it does not undergo expansion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D & 4D Printing in Engineering Applications)

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15 pages, 5655 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Injection Moulding into 3D-Printed Plastic Inserts Produced Using the Multi Jet Fusion Method

by Martin Habrman, Zdeněk Chval, Karel Ráž, Ludmila Kučerová and František Hůla

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4747; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134747 - 30 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1409

Abstract

Most injection-moulded plastics are injection moulded into moulds made from conventional materials such as steel or aluminium. The production costs of the mould are considerable. 3D printing from plastic can be used for injection moulds to save these costs. This article deals with injection moulding into a 3D-printed plastic mould. The injection insert was produced on a HP Multi Jet Fusion 4200 3D printer. The other part of the mould was made of aluminium. A custom injection mould was designed for the research. One insert was made from plastic, and one from aluminium. Both moulds were injected under the same injection conditions. A comparison of injection moulding into the plastic and aluminium inserts is made in this article. The difference when injection moulding into the plastic insert is explained using the different technological conditions. The part injected into the plastic insert was also different from the part injected into the aluminium insert. The difference is explained in this article. This article also looks at the interface between the injection-moulded part and the plastic insert using an electron microscope. The images taken clarify the differences between injection moulding into a plastic insert and an aluminium insert and the differences of the injection-moulded part from the plastic insert. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D & 4D Printing in Engineering Applications)

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14 pages, 4295 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Mechanical Properties of Direct Metal Laser Sintered Thin-Walled Maraging Steel (MS1) Elements

by Jerzy Bochnia, Tomasz Kozior and Jarosław Zyz

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4699; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134699 - 29 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1069

Abstract

The aim of this study was to explore the mechanical properties of thin-walled maraging steel (MS1) elements fabricated using direct metal laser sintering (DMLS). This article first explains the fabrication procedure and then analyzes the results of the static tensile strength tests and microscopic (SEM) examinations. From this study, it is evident that the mechanical properties of such objects, particularly their tensile strength, are not affected by the build direction; no significant anisotropy was found. The experiments confirm, however, that the mechanical properties of thin-walled elements fabricated from MS1 by DMLS are largely dependent on thickness. The microscopic images of such elements show local discontinuities in the macrostructure of the molten material (powder). Although the research described here mainly contributes to the field of additive manufacturing, it also considers some aspects of Lean manufacturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D & 4D Printing in Engineering Applications)

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15 pages, 5624 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Application of Additive Composites Technologies for Clamping and Manipulation Devices in the Production Process

by Richard Joch, Michal Šajgalík, Mário Drbúl, Jozef Holubják, Andrej Czán, Vladimír Bechný and Miroslav Matúš

Materials 2023, 16(10), 3624; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16103624 - 9 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1457

Abstract

Additive technologies have been widely adopted in various industries. The choice of additive technology and material directly affects the functionality of the manufactured components. The development of materials with better mechanical properties has led to a growing interest in replacing traditional metal components with those manufactured using additive technologies. The application of Onyx as a material comes into consideration, which contains short carbon fibers to increase the mechanical properties. This study aims to experimentally verify the viability of substituting metal gripping elements with nylon and composite materials. The design of the jaws was customized to meet the requirements of a three-jaw chuck of a CNC machining center. The evaluation process involved monitoring the functionality and deformation effects on the clamped PTFE polymer material. When the metal jaws were applied, significant deformation of the clamped material occurred, which varied with the clamping pressure. This deformation was evidenced by the formation of spreading cracks on the clamped material and permanent shape changes in the tested material. Conversely, nylon and composite jaws manufactured using additive technology demonstrated functionality across all tested clamping pressures, without causing permanent deformation of the clamped material, unlike the traditional metal jaws. The results of this study confirm the applicability of the Onyx material and provide practical evidence of the potential for reducing deformation caused by clamping mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D & 4D Printing in Engineering Applications)

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15 pages, 16423 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Mechanical Properties of Thin-Walled Specimens Printed from a Bronze-Filled PLA-Based Composite Filament Using Fused Deposition Modelling

by Jerzy Bochnia, Tomasz Kozior and Malgorzata Blasiak

Materials 2023, 16(8), 3241; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16083241 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1360

Abstract

This article focuses on the mechanical property analysis of important models omitted in many scientific papers (thin-walled specimens) printed from innovative material—such as PLA + bronze composite—using fused deposition modelling technology. It discusses the printing process, the measurement of the specimen geometry, the static tensile strength tests and the microscopic examinations conducted with a scanning electron microscope. The findings of this study could be used as an input to further research into the accuracy of filament deposition and the modification of base materials with bronze powder and for the optimization of the machine design, e.g., with the use of cell structures. The experimental results indicated that the thin-walled models fabricated using FDM showed substantial differences in tensile strength, depending on the specimen’s thickness and the printing orientation. It was shown that it was not possible to test thin-walled models located on the building platform along the Z axis due to the lack of sufficient adhesion between the layers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D & 4D Printing in Engineering Applications)

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17 pages, 5043 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of the Type of Plastic and Printing Technologies on the Compressive Behavior of 3D-Printed Heel Prototypes

by Edita Gelaziene and Daiva Milasiene

Materials 2023, 16(5), 1930; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16051930 - 26 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1651

Abstract

In this study, the possibility of using modern AM technologies to produce designed heels for personalized orthopedic footwear with a medium heel was explored. Seven variants of heels were produced using three 3D printing methods and polymeric materials with different natures: PA12 heels made using the SLS method, photopolymer heels made using the SLA method, and PLA, TPC, ABS, PETG, and PA (NYLON) heels made using the FDM method. A theoretical simulation with forces of 1000 N, 2000 N, and 3000 N was performed in order to evaluate possible human weight loads and possible pressure during orthopedic shoe production. The compression test of the 3D-printed prototypes of the designed heels showed that it is possible to replace the traditional wooden heels of hand-made personalized orthopedic footwear with good-quality PA12 and photopolymer heels made using the SLS and SLA methods, but also with PLA, ABS, and PA (NYLON) heels printed using a cheaper FDM 3D printing method. All of the heels made using these variants withstood loads of more than 15,000 N without damage. It was determined that TPC is not suitable for a product of this design and purpose. Due to its greater brittleness, the possibility of using PETG for orthopedic shoe heels must be verified by additional experiments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D & 4D Printing in Engineering Applications)

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12 pages, 3892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study of the Mechanical Properties of Naturally Aged Photopolymers Printed Using the PJM Technology

by Jerzy Bochnia

Materials 2023, 16(1), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010400 - 1 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1992

Abstract

Additive manufacturing is being increasingly used both for rapid prototyping as well as the fabrication of finished components. It is important to determine how the properties of 3D printed materials change over time and how they affect the durability and usability of products. The aim of the research presented in this article was to find out what influence the natural aging period had on the mechanical properties, especially the tensile strength and modulus of elasticity, of specimens made from the selected photocurable resins using the PolyJet Matrix (PJM) technology. The tests involved determining the tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of specimens fabricated in 2013 and 2014 using two types of photosensitive resins, i.e., FullCure 720 and VeroWhite, respectively. Some of the specimens were stored under laboratory conditions until July 2022 and then tested using a universal testing machine. The experimental data obtained in 2022 for the naturally aged models were compared with those reported for the as-printed specimens. One of the main findings of this study was that the tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of the naturally aged specimens were largely dependent on the printing direction (model orientation on the build tray). The test results show that aging generally decreased the tensile strength of the specimens. In one case, however, an increase in this property was observed. For the X and Y printing directions, R_m declined by 27.1% and 30.7%, respectively. For the Z direction, a decrease of only 5.5% was reported, for Full Cure 720. The modulus of elasticity of the models tested in 2022 differed considerably from that reported for the as-printed objects. Higher values of the modulus of elasticity implied that the material stiffness increased over time, and this is a common phenomenon in polymers. Interesting results were obtained for VeroWhite specimens. The modulus of elasticity decreased significantly by 25.1% and 42.4% for the specimens printed in the X and Z directions, respectively. However, for the models built in the Y direction, it increased by 27.4%. The experimental data may be of significance to users of products manufactured using the PJM method as well as to researchers dealing with the durability and reliability of such materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D & 4D Printing in Engineering Applications)

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19 pages, 4770 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Electrical Conductivity of Additively Manufactured Copper and Silver for Electrical Winding Applications

by John Robinson, Sai Priya Munagala, Arun Arjunan, Nick Simpson, Ryan Jones, Ahmad Baroutaji, Loganathan T. Govindaraman and Iain Lyall

Materials 2022, 15(21), 7563; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217563 - 28 Oct 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2633

Abstract

Efficient and power-dense electrical machines are critical in driving the next generation of green energy technologies for many industries including automotive, aerospace and energy. However, one of the primary requirements to enable this is the fabrication of compact custom windings with optimised materials and geometries. Electrical machine windings rely on highly electrically conductive materials, and therefore, the Additive Manufacturing (AM) of custom copper (Cu) and silver (Ag) windings offers opportunities to simultaneously improve efficiency through optimised materials, custom geometries and topology and thermal management through integrated cooling strategies. Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) is the most mature AM technology for metals, however, laser processing highly reflective and conductive metals such as Cu and Ag is highly challenging due to insufficient energy absorption. In this regard, this study details the 400 W L-PBF processing of high-purity Cu, Ag and Cu–Ag alloys and the resultant electrical conductivity performance. Six Cu and Ag material variants are investigated in four comparative studies characterising the influence of material composition, powder recoating, laser exposure and electropolishing. The highest density and electrical conductivity achieved was 88% and 73% IACS, respectively. To aid in the application of electrical insulation coatings, electropolishing parameters are established to improve surface roughness. Finally, proof-of-concept electrical machine coils are fabricated, highlighting the potential for 400 W L-PBF processing of Cu and Ag, extending the current state of the art. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D & 4D Printing in Engineering Applications)

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Review

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22 pages, 18209 KiB

Open AccessReview

Multimetal Research in Powder Bed Fusion: A Review

by Liming Yao, Aditya Ramesh, Zhongmin Xiao, Yang Chen and Quihui Zhuang

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4287; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124287 - 9 Jun 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1748

Abstract

This article discusses the different forms of powder bed fusion (PBF) techniques, namely laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), electron beam powder bed fusion (EB-PBF) and large-area pulsed laser powder bed fusion (L-APBF). The challenges faced in multimetal additive manufacturing, including material compatibility, porosity, cracks, loss of alloying elements and oxide inclusions, have been extensively discussed. Solutions proposed to overcome these challenges include the optimization of printing parameters, the use of support structures, and post-processing techniques. Future research on metal composites, functionally graded materials, multi-alloy structures and materials with tailored properties are needed to address these challenges and improve the quality and reliability of the final product. The advancement of multimetal additive manufacturing can offer significant benefits for various industries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D & 4D Printing in Engineering Applications)

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