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Advanced Research on Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases

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A special issue of Microorganisms (ISSN 2076-2607). This special issue belongs to the section "Parasitology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2023) | Viewed by 24408

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Galina N. Leonova

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Guest Editor

Laboratory of Natural Focal Transmissible Infections, Somov Research Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology, Vladivostok, Russian Federation
Interests: tick-borne diseases; Ixodid ticks
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Maxim Khasnatinov

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Guest Editor

FSPSI Scientific Centre for family health and human reproduction problems (SC FHHRP), Irkutsk, Russian Federation
Interests: tick-borne diseases; Ixodid ticks
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Recently, in addition to the long-known vector-borne diseases associated with tick bites, previously unknown infections have begun to appear. These can be caused by genetic variability of not only long-studied, but also new pathogens of a viral and bacterial nature. Such processes can be caused both by climatic and geographical changes and the growing global human economic activity.

As a Guest Editor of this Special Issue, I invite you to submit research and review articles and short communications related to the study of the tick-borne infections, the ecology and biology of ticks and the processes of interactions between pathogens, ticks and vertebrate hosts during mono- and co-infection. Original research on the diagnosis, prevention, clinical characterization, and therapy of tick-borne infections is also welcome. In addition, review articles, including opinions on future prospects for the study of pathogens and the ecology of their vectors, are welcome. Topics of interest include the following:

Diversity, distribution and ecology of ticks and tick-borne infections;
Control of tick populations, anti-tick vaccines, and genetic modifications of ticks;
Interactions between viruses, bacteria, ticks and vertebrate hosts;
Recent advances in animal and cell line models of tick-borne infections;
Recent advances and novel approaches in monitoring and surveillance of tick-borne infections of humans and animals.
Development of antivirals and antibiotics against tick-borne pathogens;
Novel approaches to the detection of tick-borne pathogens, diagnostics, therapy and prevention of tick-borne diseases;

I hope that experts from different fields will contribute to this project.

Dr. Galina N. Leonova
Dr. Maxim Khasnatinov
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Microorganisms is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

ticks
tick-borne viruses and bacteria
ecology
epidemiology
diagnostics
clinical manifistations
therapy

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 5495 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Viral Coinfection of the Ixodes persulcatus Ticks Feeding on Humans in a Natural Focus of the South of the Far East

by Galina N. Leonova, Larisa M. Somova, Svetlana A. Abramova and Evgeniy V. Pustovalov

Microorganisms 2023, 11(7), 1791; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11071791 - 12 Jul 2023

Viewed by 882

Abstract

The phenomenon of pathogen co-infection detected in a half-fed Ixodes persulcatus tick taken from a human in the south of the Far East was studied. Research was carried out on PEK, Vero, and Vero-E6 cell lines, outbred mice, and chicken embryos using ELISA, PCR, IMFA, plaque formation, and electron microscopy. The tick contained an antigen and a genetic marker of the tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). The patient had post-vaccination antibodies in a titer of 1:200, as a result of which, obviously, an antibody-dependent elimination of TBEV occurred. The tick-borne co-isolate also contained an unknown pathogen (Kiparis-144 virus), which, in our opinion, was a trigger for the activation of chronic infection in suckling white mice. In the laboratory co-isolate, ectromelia virus was present, as evidenced by paw edema during the intradermal infection of mice, characteristic rashes on the chorioallantoic envelope of chicken embryos, and typical plaques on Vero-E6. The Kiparis-144 virus was not pathogenic for white mice and chicken embryos, but it successfully multiplied in the PEK, Vero, and Vero-E6 lines. Viral co-infection was confirmed by electron microscopy. Passaging on mice contributed to an increase in the virulence of the co-isolate, whose titer increased by 10,000 times by the fifth passage, which poses an epidemiological danger. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases)

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21 pages, 1439 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial and Temporal Variability in Prevalence Rates of Members of the Borrelia burgdorferi Species Complex in Ixodes ricinus Ticks in Urban, Agricultural and Sylvatic Habitats in Slovakia

by Mária Kazimírová, Lenka Mahríková, Zuzana Hamšíková, Michal Stanko, Maryna Golovchenko and Natalie Rudenko

Microorganisms 2023, 11(7), 1666; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11071666 - 27 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1046

Abstract

Lyme borreliosis (LB) is the most prevalent tick-borne human infection in Europe, with increasing incidence during the latest decades. Abundant populations of Ixodes ricinus, the main vector of the causative agent, spirochetes from the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (Bbsl) complex, have been observed in urban and suburban areas of Europe, in general, and Slovakia, particularly. Understanding the spread of infectious diseases is crucial for implementing effective control measures. Global changes affect contact rates of humans and animals with Borrelia-infected ticks and increase the risk of contracting LB. The aim of this study was to investigate spatial and temporal variation in prevalence of Bbsl and diversity of its species in questing I. ricinus from three sites representing urban/suburban, natural and agricultural habitat types in Slovakia. Ixodes ricinus nymphs and adults were collected by dragging the vegetation in green areas of Bratislava town (urban/suburban habitat), in the Small Carpathians Mountains (natural habitat) (south-western Slovakia) and in an agricultural habitat at Rozhanovce in eastern Slovakia. Borrelia presence in ticks was detected by PCR and Bbsl species were identified by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. species in coinfected ticks were identified by reverse line blot. Significant spatial and temporal variability in prevalence of infected ticks was revealed in the explored habitats. The lowest total prevalence was detected in the urban/suburban habitat, whereas higher prevalence was found in the natural and agricultural habitat. Six Bbsl species were detected by RFLP in each habitat type —B. burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.), B. afzelii, B. garinii, B. valaisiana, B. lusitaniae and B. spielmanii. Coinfections accounted for 3% of the total infections, whereby B. kurtenbachii was identified by RLB and sequencing in mixed infection with B. burgdorferi s.s, B. garinii and B. valaisiana. This finding represents the first record of B. kurtenbachii in questing I. ricinus in Slovakia and Europe. Variations in the proportion of Bbsl species were found between nymphs and adults, between years and between habitat types. Spatial variations in prevalence patterns and proportion of Bbsl species were also confirmed between locations within a relatively short distance in the urban habitat. Habitat-related and spatial variations in Borrelia prevalence and distribution of Bbsl species are probably associated with the local environmental conditions and vertebrate host spectrum. Due to the presence of Borrelia species pathogenic to humans, all explored sites can be ranked as areas with high epidemiological risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases)

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11 pages, 2296 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Rickettsia bellii on Anaplasma marginale Infection in Dermacentor andersoni Cell Culture

by Joseph A. Aspinwall, Shelby M. Jarvis, Susan M. Noh and Kelly A. Brayton

Microorganisms 2023, 11(5), 1096; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11051096 - 22 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1310

Abstract

Anaplasma marginale is a tick-borne pathogen that causes bovine anaplasmosis, which affects cattle around the world. Despite its broad prevalence and severe economic impacts, limited treatments exist for this disease. Our lab previously reported that a high proportion of Rickettsia bellii, a tick endosymbiont, in the microbiome of a population of Dermacentor andersoni ticks negatively impacts the ticks’ ability to acquire A. marginale. To better understand this correlation, we used mixed infection of A. marginale and R. bellii in D. andersoni cell culture. We assessed the impacts of different amounts of R. bellii in coinfections, as well as established R. bellii infection, on the ability of A. marginale to establish an infection and grow in D. andersoni cells. From these experiments, we conclude that A. marginale is less able to establish an infection in the presence of R. bellii and that an established R. bellii infection inhibits A. marginale replication. This interaction highlights the importance of the microbiome in preventing tick vector competence and may lead to the development of a biological or mechanistic control for A. marginale transmission by the tick. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases)

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10 pages, 1252 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anaplasma and Ehrlichia Species in Ixodidae Ticks Collected from Two Regions of Bulgaria

by Iskren Stanilov, Alexander Blazhev and Lyuba Miteva

Microorganisms 2023, 11(3), 594; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11030594 - 26 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1809

Abstract

The aim of the study was to determine prevalence of Anaplasmataceae-infected ticks in the Black Sea Coast and the Pleven regions of Bulgaria. A total of 350 ticks from different tick species were collected. Two hundred fifty-five ticks were removed from dogs in the Black Sea Coast region, and 95 Ixodes ricinus ticks were collected by flagging vegetation with a white flannel cloth in two areas in the region of Pleven. After the DNA isolation of the ticks, a genus-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to identify Anaplasmataceae. Second PCRs were performed with species-specific primers to identify Ehrlichia canis (E. canis) and Anaplasma phagocytophilum (A. phagocytophilum). The results showed that 26.9% of the Ixodes ricinus ticks were infected with Anaplasmataceae in the Black Sea Coast region and 36.8% in the Pleven region. The infection with E. canis was detected in 35.7% and A. phagocytophilum in 25.0% of positive ticks from the Black Sea Coast region. In the Pleven region, 22.9% of ticks were positive for E. canis, while 42.9% were positive for A. phagocytophilum. The molecular identification of E. canis in ticks collected from Bulgaria was performed for the first time. In conclusion, the present study revealed a higher prevalence of ticks infected with Anaplasmataceae, particularly A. phagocytophilum, in the Pleven region than in the Black Sea Coast region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases)

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14 pages, 1582 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection and Characterization of Alongshan Virus in Ticks and Tick Saliva from Lower Saxony, Germany with Serological Evidence for Viral Transmission to Game and Domestic Animals

by Cara Leonie Ebert, Lars Söder, Mareike Kubinski, Julien Glanz, Eva Gregersen, Katrin Dümmer, Domenic Grund, Ann-Sophie Wöhler, Laura Könenkamp, Katrin Liebig, Steffen Knoll, Fanny Hellhammer, Anna-Katharina Topp, Paul Becher, Andrea Springer, Christina Strube, Uschi Nagel-Kohl, Marcel Nordhoff, Imke Steffen, Benjamin Ulrich Bauer, Martin Ganter, Karsten Feige, Stefanie C. Becker and Mathias Boelke Show full author list Hide full author list

Microorganisms 2023, 11(3), 543; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11030543 - 21 Feb 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5790

Abstract

The newly discovered group of Jingmenviruses has been shown to infect a wide range of hosts and has been associated with febrile illness in humans. During a survey for Jingmenviruses in ticks from Lower Saxony, Germany, Alongshan virus (ALSV) was identified in Ixodes spp. ticks. Additional virus screenings revealed the presence of ALSV in the bodies and saliva of ticks collected at several locations in Lower Saxony. Vector competence studies that included Ixodes ricinus and Dermacentor reticulatus validated the replication of ALSV within those tick species. In vitro feeding experiments with ALSV-injected Ixodes ricinus demonstrated effective viral transmission during blood feeding. To evaluate the potential viral transmission during a natural blood meal, sera from wild game and domestic animals were investigated. One serum sample from a red deer was found to be positive for ALSV RNA, while serological screenings in game and domestic animals revealed the presence of ALSV-specific antibodies at different locations in Lower Saxony. Overall, those results demonstrate the broad distribution of ALSV in ticks in Lower Saxony and hypothesize frequent exposure to animals based on serological investigations. Hence, its potential risk to human and animal health requires further investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases)

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14 pages, 4691 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Search for Tick-Associated, Bronnoya-like Virus Spillover into Sheep

by Bianca Elena Bratuleanu, Cristian Raileanu, Delphine Chrétien, Pablo Guardado-Calvo, Thomas Bigot, Gheorghe Savuta, Sarah Temmam and Marc Eloit

Microorganisms 2023, 11(1), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11010209 - 13 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1843

Abstract

Tick-borne diseases are responsible for many vector-borne diseases within Europe. Recently, novel viruses belonging to a new viral family of the order Bunyavirales were discovered in numerous tick species. In this study, we used metatranscriptomics to detect the virome, including novel viruses, associated with Ixodes ricinus collected from Romania and France. A bunyavirus-like virus related to the Bronnoya virus was identified for the first time in these regions. It presents a high level of amino-acid conservation with Bronnoya-related viruses identified in I. ricinus ticks from Norway and Croatia and with the Ixodes scapularis bunyavirus isolated from a tick cell line in Japan in 2014. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that the Bronnoya viruses’ sub-clade is distinct from several Bunyavirales families, suggesting that it could constitute a novel family within the order. To determine if Bronnoya viruses could constitute novel tick-borne arboviruses, a Luciferase immunoprecipitation assay for detecting antibodies in the viral glycoprotein of the Romanian Bronnoya virus was used to screen sera from small ruminants exposed to tick bites. No positive serum was detected, suggesting that this virus is probably not able to infect small ruminants. This study represents the first serological investigation of mammalian infections with a Bronnoya-like virus and an initial step in the identification of potential new emergences of tick-borne arboviruses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases)

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9 pages, 1028 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence of Rickettsia spp., Hantaviridae, Bartonella spp. and Leptospira spp. in European Moles (Talpa europaea) from the Netherlands

by Tryntsje Cuperus, Ankje de Vries, Ryanne I. Jaarsma, Hein Sprong and Miriam Maas

Microorganisms 2023, 11(1), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11010041 - 22 Dec 2022

Viewed by 1856

Abstract

The European mole (Talpa europaea) has a widespread distribution throughout Europe. However, little is known about the presence of zoonotic pathogens in European moles. We therefore tested 180 moles from the middle and the south of the Netherlands by (q)PCR for the presence of multiple (tick-borne) zoonotic pathogens. Spotted fever Rickettsia was found in one (0.6%), Leptospira spp. in three (1.7%), Bartonella spp. in 69 (38.3%) and Hantaviridae in 89 (49.4%) of the 180 moles. Infections with Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia spp., Neoehrlichia mikurensis, Borrelia spp., Spiroplasma spp. and Francisella tularensis were not found. In addition, in a subset of 35 moles no antibodies against Tick-borne encephalitis virus were found. The obtained sequences of Bartonella spp. were closely related to Bartonella spp. sequences from moles in Spain and Hungary. The Hantaviridae were identified as the mole-borne Nova virus, with high sequence similarity to sequences from other European countries, and Bruges virus. Though the zoonotic risk from moles appears limited, our results indicate that these animals do play a role in multiple host-pathogen cycles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases)

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12 pages, 2158 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diagnostic Performance of Competitive ELISA and Western Blot Methods for the Detection of Antibodies against Theileria equi and Babesia caballi

by Guangpu Yang, Bingqian Zhou, Kewei Chen, Zhe Hu, Wei Guo, Xiaojun Wang and Cheng Du

Microorganisms 2023, 11(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11010021 - 21 Dec 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1564

Abstract

Theileria equi (T. equi) and Babesia caballi (B. caballi) are the causative pathogens of Equine piroplasmosis (EP), a disease that has brought huge economic losses and great restrictions to the global equine industry. Rapid and accurate diagnostic methods are critical for the effective monitoring of the disease. In this study, we developed novel competitive ELISA methods and western blot assays based on the EMA1 or Bc48 proteins to detect antibodies against T. equi or B. caballi, respectively. In the novel cELISA, horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-labeled monoclonal antibodies are used in place of enzyme-conjugated secondary antibodies, in order to speed up the entire procedure. These methods have high sensitivity and no cross-reactivity with antibodies against other equine diseases. In the newly developed western blot assays, we optimized the dilution of T. equi or B. caballi positive serum samples to 1:200. Compared with the commercially available kit, both the novel cELISA assay and the western blot assay showed high coincidence rates in detecting antibodies against T. equi and B. caballi. Taken together, the novel cELISA and the western blot assays for detecting antibodies against T. equi or B. caballi have the potential to rapidly test for T. equi or B. caballi and to contribute to the surveillance and control of this disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases)

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11 pages, 1526 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Allelic Variants of P66 Gene in Borrelia bavariensis Isolates from Patients with Ixodid Tick-Borne Borreliosis

by Kristina Golidonova, Eduard Korenberg, Ekaterina Krupinskaya, Vera Matrosova and Alexander Gintsburg

Microorganisms 2022, 10(12), 2509; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10122509 - 19 Dec 2022

Viewed by 1621

Abstract

Protein P66 is one of the crucial virulence factors of Borrelia, inducing the production of specific antibodies in patients with ixodid tick-borne borreliosis (ITBB). Various species of Borrelia are characterized by genetic variability of the surface-exposed loop of P66. However, little is known about this variability in Borrelia bavariensis. Here we describe the variability of the nucleotide sequences of P66 gene locus in isolates of B. bavariensis. Analysis of nucleotide sequences of P66 in 27 isolates of B. bavariensis from ITBB patients revealed three allelic variants of this gene. The alignment score of amino acid sequences in the isolates showed amino acid replacements in various positions confirming the presence of three allelic variants. Two of them are characteristic only for some isolates of B. bavariensis of the Eurasian gene pool from various parts of the geographic ranges of B. bavariensis from various samples. At least three allelic variants of P66 B. bavariensis have been identified, which have different amino acid expression, occur with different frequency in ITBB patients and, presumably, can have different effects on the course of the infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases)

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12 pages, 22517 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Molecular Characterization of Octopamine/Tyramine Receptor Gene of Amitraz-Resistant Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus Ticks from Uganda

by Patrick Vudriko, Rika Umemiya-Shirafuji, Dickson Stuart Tayebwa, Joseph Byaruhanga, Benedicto Byamukama, Maria Tumwebaze, Xuenan Xuan and Hiroshi Suzuki

Microorganisms 2022, 10(12), 2384; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10122384 - 30 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1808

Abstract

We previously reported the emergence of amitraz-resistant Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus ticks in the western region of Uganda. This study characterized the octopamine/tyramine receptor gene (OCT/Tyr) of amitraz-resistant and -susceptible R. (B.) decoloratus ticks from four regions of Uganda. The OCT/Tyr gene was amplified from genomic DNA of 17 R. (B.) decoloratus larval populations of known susceptibility to amitraz. The amplicons were purified, cloned and sequenced to determine mutations in the partial coding region of the OCT/Tyr gene. The amplified R. (B.) decoloratus OCT/Tyr gene was 91–100% identical to the R. (B.) microplus OCT/Tyr gene. Up to 24 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were found in the OCT/Tyr gene from ticks obtained from high acaricide pressure areas, compared to 8 from the low acaricide pressure areas. A total of eight amino acid mutations were recorded in the partial OCT/Tyr gene from ticks from the western region, and four of them were associated with amitraz-resistant tick populations. The amino acid mutations M1G, L16F, D41G and V72A were associated with phenotypic resistance to amitraz with no specific pattern. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the OCT/Tyr gene sequence from this study clustered into two distinct groups that separated the genotype from high acaricide pressure areas from the susceptible populations. In conclusion, this study is the first to characterize the R. (B.) decoloratus OCT/Tyr receptor gene and reports four novel amino acid mutations associated with phenotypic amitraz resistance in Uganda. However, lack of mutations in the ORF of the OCT/Tyr gene fragment for some of the amitraz-resistant R. (B.) decoloratus ticks could suggest that other mechanisms of resistance may be responsible for amitraz resistance, hence the need for further investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases)

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16 pages, 3218 KiB

Open AccessArticle

MALDI-TOF MS Identification of Dromedary Camel Ticks and Detection of Associated Microorganisms, Southern Algeria

by Fatima Zohra Hamlili, Laroche Maureen, Adama Zan Diarra, Ismail Lafri, Brahim Gassen, Boubaker Boutefna, Bernard Davoust, Idir Bitam and Philippe Parola

Microorganisms 2022, 10(11), 2178; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10112178 - 3 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1631

Abstract

This study used MALDI-TOF MS and molecular tools to identify tick species infesting camels from Tamanrasset in southern Algeria and to investigate their associated microorganisms. Ninety-one adult ticks were collected from nine camels and were morphologically identified as Hyalomma spp., Hyalomma dromedarii, Hyalomma excavatum, Hyalomma impeltatum and Hyalomma anatolicum. Next, the legs of all ticks were subjected to MALDI-TOF MS, and 88/91 specimens provided good-quality MS spectra. Our homemade MALDI-TOF MS arthropod spectra database was then updated with the new MS spectra of 14 specimens of molecularly confirmed species in this study. The spectra of the remaining tick specimens not included in the MS database were queried against the upgraded database. All 74 specimens were correctly identified by MALDI-TOF MS, with logarithmic score values ranging from 1.701 to 2.507, with median and mean values of 2.199 and 2.172 ± 0.169, respectively. One H. impeltatum and one H. dromedarii (2/91; 2.20%) tested positive by qPCR for Coxiella burnetii, the agent of Q fever. We also report the first detection of an Anaplasma sp. close to A. platys in H. dromedarii in Algeria and a potentially new Ehrlichia sp. in H. impeltatum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases)

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14 pages, 2344 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thrombospondin-Related Anonymous Protein (TRAP) Family Expression by Babesia bovis Life Stages within the Mammalian Host and Tick Vector

by Hayley E. Masterson, Naomi S. Taus, Wendell C. Johnson, Lowell Kappmeyer, Janaina Capelli-Peixoto, Hala E. Hussein, Michelle R. Mousel, Diego J. Hernandez-Silva, Jacob M. Laughery, Juan Mosqueda and Massaro W. Ueti

Microorganisms 2022, 10(11), 2173; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10112173 - 2 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1685

Abstract

The tick-transmitted disease bovine babesiosis causes significant economic losses in many countries around the world. Current control methods include modified live-attenuated vaccines that have limited efficacy. Recombinant proteins could provide effective, safe, and low-cost alternative vaccines. We compared the expression of the Babesia bovis thrombospondin-related anonymous protein (TRAP) family from parasites in bovine blood, in vitro induced sexual stages, and kinetes from tick hemolymph. Quantitative PCR showed that in blood and sexual stages, TRAP3 was highly transcribed as compared to the other TRAPs. In contrast, the TRAP1 gene was highly transcribed in kinetes as compared to the other TRAPs. Fixed immunofluorescence assays showed that TRAP2, 3, and 4 proteins were expressed by both blood and sexual stages. Conversely, TRAP1 protein, undetected on blood and induced sexual stages, was the only family member expressed by kinetes. Live IFA revealed that TRAP2, 3, and 4 proteins were expressed on the surface of both B. bovis blood and sexual stages. Modeling of B. bovis TRAP1 and TRAP4 tertiary structure demonstrated both proteins folded the metal-ion-dependent adhesion site (MIDAS) domain structure of Plasmodium TRAP. In conclusion, TRAP proteins may serve as potential vaccine targets to prevent infection of bovine and ticks with B. bovis essential for controlling the spread of bovine babesiosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases)

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