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Pharmaceutical Residues in the Environment

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A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (29 February 2020) | Viewed by 47982

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Prof. Dr. Jolanta Kumirska

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Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdańsk, ul. Wita Stwosza 63, 80-308 Gdansk, Poland
Interests: analytical chemistry; methods development; environmental protection; pharmaceutical analysis

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Pharmaceuticals, due to their pseudo-persistence and biological activity as well extensive use in human and veterinary medicine are a class of environmental contaminants of emerging concern. In opposite to some conventional pollutants, pharmaceuticals are continuously delivered at low levels, which might give rise to toxicity even without high persistence rates. These chemicals are designed to have a specific physiological mode of action, and frequently to resist to inactivation before exerting their intended therapeutic effect. These features among others make pharmaceuticals responsible for bioaccumulation and toxic effects in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Consumption of water containing pharmaceutical residues, especially in the long term, may upset the body’s equilibrium and lead to the dangerous phenomenon of drug resistance. The high biological activity of these compounds causes that it is extremely important to know how to remove them from the environment and/or how to perform their biological inactivation. Pharmaceuticals have been detected in the environment of 71 countries covering all continents. Such disturbance might have significant and long-term effects on the rate and stability of ecosystem functioning. Furthermore, their metabolites or degradation products may possess more toxic effects on the environment than the original compounds. For these reasons, the presence of pharmaceuticals in the environment has attracted attention within the scientific community around the world.

Hence the detection, determination and analysis of the fate of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in different compartments of the environment are some of the main tasks of modern analytical and environmental chemistry. An important limitation of such studies is the availability of sufficiently sensitive and reliable analytical methods for determining different pharmaceuticals present in trace amounts in such complex matrices. Although great advances have been made in their detection in aquatic matrices, there are limited analytical methodologies for trace analysis of target and non-target pharmaceuticals in matrices such as soils, sediments or biota. There are still many gaps in robust data on their fate and behavior in the environment, as well as on threats to ecological and human health. This Special Issue will include current research and review articles in this field.

Prof. Dr. Jolanta Kumirska
Guest Editor

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Keywords

pharmaceutical residues
fate in the environment
fate in WWTPs
ecotoxicity
antibiotic resistance
development of methods
environmental risk assessment

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 174 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue “Pharmaceutical Residues in the Environment”

by Jolanta Kumirska

Molecules 2020, 25(12), 2941; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25122941 - 26 Jun 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2612

Abstract

Pharmaceuticals, due to their pseudo-persistence and biological activity as well as their extensive use in human and veterinary medicine, are a class of environmental contaminants that is of emerging concern [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Residues in the Environment)

Research

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18 pages, 975 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Selected Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Two Different Wastewater Treatment Plant Systems in Poland: A Preliminary Study

by Magdalena Pazda, Magda Rybicka, Stefan Stolte, Krzysztof Piotr Bielawski, Piotr Stepnowski, Jolanta Kumirska, Daniel Wolecki and Ewa Mulkiewicz

Molecules 2020, 25(12), 2851; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25122851 - 20 Jun 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4502

Abstract

Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem worldwide. The emergence and rapid spread of antibiotic resistance determinants have led to an increasing concern about the potential environmental and public health endangering. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) play an important role in this phenomenon since antibacterial drugs introduced into wastewater can exert a selection pressure on antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Therefore, WWTPs are perceived as the main sources of antibiotics, ARB and ARG spread in various environmental components. Furthermore, technological processes used in WWTPs and its exploitation conditions may influence the effectiveness of antibiotic resistance determinants’ elimination. The main aim of the present study was to compare the occurrence of selected tetracycline and sulfonamide resistance genes in raw influent and final effluent samples from two WWTPs different in terms of size and applied biological wastewater treatment processes (conventional activated sludge (AS)-based and combining a conventional AS-based method with constructed wetlands (CWs)). All 13 selected ARGs were detected in raw influent and final effluent samples from both WWTPs. Significant ARG enrichment, especially for tet(B, K, L, O) and sulIII genes, was observed in conventional WWTP. The obtained data did not show a clear trend in seasonal fluctuations in the abundance of selected resistance genes in wastewaters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Residues in the Environment)

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18 pages, 3612 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Survey of the Presence of Pharmaceutical Residues in Wastewaters. Evaluation of Their Removal using Conventional and Natural Treatment Procedures

by R. Guedes-Alonso, S. Montesdeoca-Esponda, J. Pacheco-Juárez, Z. Sosa-Ferrera and J. J. Santana-Rodríguez

Molecules 2020, 25(7), 1639; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25071639 - 2 Apr 2020

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3326

Abstract

To encourage the reutilization of treated wastewaters as an adaptation strategy to climate change it is necessary to demonstrate their quality. If this is ensured, reclaimed waters could be a valuable resource that produces very little environmental impact and risks to human health. However, wastewaters are one of the main sources of emerging pollutants that are discharged in the environment. For this, it is essential to assess the presence of these pollutants, especially pharmaceutical compounds, in treated wastewaters. Moreover, the different treatment processes must be evaluated in order to know if conventional and natural treatment technologies are efficient in the removal of these types of compounds. This is an important consideration if the treated wastewaters are used in agricultural activities. Owing to the complexity of wastewater matrixes and the low concentrations of pharmaceutical residues in these types of samples, it is necessary to use sensitive analytical methodologies. In this study, the presence of 11 pharmaceutical compounds were assessed in three different wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Gran Canaria (Spain). Two of these WWTPs use conventional purification technologies and they are located in densely populated areas, while the other studied WWTP is based in constructed wetlands which purify the wastewaters of a rural area. The sampling was performed monthly for two years. A solid phase extraction (SPE) coupled to ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method was applied for the analysis of the samples, and the 11 pharmaceuticals were detected in all the studied WWTPs. The concentrations were variable and ranged from ng·L⁻¹ in some compounds like diclofenac or carbamazepine to µg·L⁻¹ in common pharmaceutical compounds such as caffeine, naproxen or ibuprofen. In addition, removal efficiencies in both conventional and natural purification systems were evaluated. Similar removal efficiencies were obtained using different purifying treatments, especially for some pharmaceutical families as stimulants or anti-inflammatories. Other compounds like carbamazepine showed a recalcitrant behavior. Secondary treatments presented similar removal efficiencies in both conventional and natural wastewater treatment plants, but conventional treatments showed slightly higher elimination ratios. Regarding tertiary system, the treatment with highest removal efficiencies was reverse osmosis in comparison with microfiltration and electrodialysis reversal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Residues in the Environment)

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18 pages, 1581 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Selected Antidepressants on the Ciliated Protozoan Spirostomum ambiguum: Toxicity, Bioaccumulation, and Biotransformation Products

by Grzegorz Nałęcz-Jawecki, Milena Wawryniuk, Joanna Giebułtowicz, Adam Olkowski and Agata Drobniewska

Molecules 2020, 25(7), 1476; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25071476 - 25 Mar 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2922

Abstract

The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of the most common antidepressants on aquatic protozoa. Spirostomum ambiguum was used as the model protozoan. The biological activity of four antidepressants, namely fluoxetine, sertraline, paroxetine, and mianserin, toward S. ambiguum was evaluated. Sertraline was found to be the most toxic drug with EC₅₀ values of 0.2 to 0.7 mg/L. The toxicity of the antidepressants depended on the pH of the medium and was the highest in alkaline conditions. Sertraline was also the most bioaccumulating compound tested, followed by mianserin. Slow depuration was observed after transferring the protozoa from the drug solutions to a fresh medium, which indicated possible lysosomotropism of the tested antidepressants in the protozoa. The biotransformation products were identified using a high-resolution mass spectrometer after two days of incubation of the protozoa with the tested antidepressants. Four to six potential biotransformation products were observed in the aqueous phase, while no metabolites were detected in the protozoan cells. Because of the low abundance of metabolites in the medium, their structure was not determined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Residues in the Environment)

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22 pages, 1511 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Risk and Risk of Resistance Selection Due to Antimicrobials’ Occurrence in Two Polish Wastewater Treatment Plants and Receiving Surface Water

by Joanna Giebułtowicz, Grzegorz Nałęcz-Jawecki, Monika Harnisz, Dawid Kucharski, Ewa Korzeniewska and Grażyna Płaza

Molecules 2020, 25(6), 1470; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25061470 - 24 Mar 2020

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 3967

Abstract

In this study, a screening of 26 selected antimicrobials using liquid chromatography coupled to a tandem mass spectrometry method in two Polish wastewater treatment plants and their receiving surface waters was provided. The highest average concentrations of metronidazole (7400 ng/L), ciprofloxacin (4300 ng/L), vancomycin (3200 ng/L), and sulfamethoxazole (3000 ng/L) were observed in influent of WWTP2. Ciprofloxacin and sulfamethoxazole were the most dominant antimicrobials in influent and effluent of both WWTPs. In the sludge samples the highest mean concentrations were found for ciprofloxacin (up to 28 μg/g) and norfloxacin (up to 5.3 μg/g). The removal efficiency of tested antimicrobials was found to be more than 50% for both WWTPs. However, the presence of antimicrobials influenced their concentrations in the receiving waters. The highest antimicrobial resistance risk was estimated in influent of WWTPs for azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, metronidazole, and trimethoprim and in the sludge samples for the following antimicrobials: azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, norfloxacin, trimethoprim, ofloxacin, and tetracycline. The high environmental risk for exposure to azithromycin, clarithromycin, and sulfamethoxazole to both cyanobacteria and eukaryotic species in effluents and/or receiving water was noted. Following the obtained results, we suggest extending the watch list of the Water Framework Directive for Union-wide monitoring with sulfamethoxazole. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Residues in the Environment)

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15 pages, 1556 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Poultry Farms as a Potential Source of Environmental Pollution by Pharmaceuticals

by Katarzyna Wychodnik, Grażyna Gałęzowska, Justyna Rogowska, Marta Potrykus, Alina Plenis and Lidia Wolska

Molecules 2020, 25(5), 1031; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25051031 - 25 Feb 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3637

Abstract

Industrial poultry breeding is associated with the need to increase productivity while maintaining low meat prices. Little is known about its impact on the environment of soil pollution by pharmaceuticals. Breeders routinely use veterinary pharmaceuticals for therapeutic and preventive purposes. The aim of this work was to determine the influence of mass breeding of hens on the soil contamination with 26 pharmaceuticals and caffeine. During two seasons—winter and summer 2019—15 soil samples were collected. Liquid extraction was used to isolate analytes from samples. Extracts were analyzed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry detection (UPLC-MS/MS). The results showed the seasonal changes in pharmaceutical presence in analyzed soil samples. Ten pharmaceuticals (metoclopramide, sulphanilamide, salicic acid, metoprolol, sulphamethazine, nimesulide, carbamazepine, trimethoprim, propranolol, and paracetamol) and caffeine were determined in soil samples collected in March, and five pharmaceuticals (metoclopramide, sulphanilamide, sulphamethazine, carbamazepine, sulfanilamid) in soil samples collected in July. The highest concentrations were observed for sulphanilamide, in a range from 746.57 ± 15.61 ng/g d.w to 3518.22 ± 146.05 ng/g d.w. The level of bacterial resistance to antibiotics did not differ between samples coming from intensive breeding farm surroundings and the reference area, based on antibiotic resistance of 85 random bacterial isolates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Residues in the Environment)

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11 pages, 2184 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Constructed Wetland Revealed Efficient Sulfamethoxazole Removal but Enhanced the Spread of Antibiotic Resistance Genes

by Shuai Zhang, Yu-Xiang Lu, Jia-Jie Zhang, Shuai Liu, Hai-Liang Song and Xiao-Li Yang

Molecules 2020, 25(4), 834; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25040834 - 14 Feb 2020

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 3299

Abstract

Constructed wetlands (CWs) could achieve high removal efficiency of antibiotics, but probably stimulate the spread of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). In this study, four CWs were established to treat synthetic wastewater containing sulfamethoxazole (SMX). SMX elimination efficiencies, SMX degradation mechanisms, dynamic fates of ARGs, and bacterial communities were evaluated during the treatment period (360 day). Throughout the whole study, the concentration of SMX in the effluent gradually increased (p < 0.05), but in general, the removal efficiency of SMX remained at a very high level (>98%). In addition, the concentration of SMX in the bottom layer was higher compared with that in the surface layer. The main byproducts of SMX degradation were found to be 4-amino benzene sulfinic acid, 3-amino-5-methylisoxazole, benzenethiol, and 3-hydroxybutan-1-aminium. Temporally speaking, an obvious increase of sul genes was observed, along with the increase of SMX concentration in the bottom and middle layers of CWs. Spatially speaking, the concentration of sul genes increased from the surface layer to the bottom layer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Residues in the Environment)

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17 pages, 804 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Evaluation of the Possibility of Using Hydroponic Cultivations for the Removal of Pharmaceuticals and Endocrine Disrupting Compounds in Municipal Sewage Treatment Plants

by Daniel Wolecki, Magda Caban, Magdalena Pazda, Piotr Stepnowski and Jolanta Kumirska

Molecules 2020, 25(1), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25010162 - 31 Dec 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3220

Abstract

The problem of the presence of pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in the environment is closely related to municipal wastewater and in consequence to municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWWTPs) because wastewater is the main way in which these compounds are transferred to the ecosystem. For this reason, the development of cheap, simple but very effective techniques for the removal of such residues from wastewater is very important. In this study, the analysis of the potential of using three new plants: Cyperus papyrus (Papyrus), Lysimachia nemorum (Yellow pimpernel), and Euonymus europaeus (European spindle) by hydroponic cultivation for the removal of 15 selected pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in an MWWTP is presented. In order to obtain the most reliable data, this study was performed using real WWTP conditions and with the determination of the selected analytes in untreated sewage, treated sewage, and in plant materials. For determining the target compounds in plant materials, an Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE)-Solid-Phase Extraction (SPE)-GC-MS(SIM) method was developed and validated. The obtained data proved that the elimination efficiency of the investigated substances from wastewater was in the range of 35.8% for diflunisal to above 99.9% for paracetamol, terbutaline, and flurbiprofen. Lysimachia nemorum was the most effective for the uptake of target compounds among the tested plant species. Thus, the application of constructed wetlands for supporting conventional MWWTPs allowed a significant increase in their removal from the wastewater stream. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Residues in the Environment)

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15 pages, 1051 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Behaviour of the Veterinary Drugs Lincomycin, Monensin, and Roxarsone and Their Toxicity on Environmental Organisms

by Peiyi Li, Yizhao Wu, Yali Wang, Jiangping Qiu and Yinsheng Li

Molecules 2019, 24(24), 4465; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24244465 - 5 Dec 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2822

Abstract

Lincomycin, monensin, and roxarsone are commonly used veterinary drugs. This study investigated their behaviours in different soils and their toxic effects on environmental organisms. Sorption and mobility analyses were performed to detect the migration capacity of drugs in soils. Toxic effects were evaluated by inhibition or acute toxicity tests on six organism species: algae, plants, daphnia, fish, earthworms and quails. The log K_d values (Freundlich model) of drugs were: lincomycin in laterite soil was 1.82; monensin in laterite soil was 2.76; and roxarsone in black soil was 1.29. The R_f value of lincomycin, roxarsone, monensin were 0.4995, 0.4493 and 0.8348 in laterite soil, and 0.5258, 0.5835 and 0.8033 in black soil, respectively. The EC₅₀ for Scenedesmus obliquus, Arabidopsis thaliana, Daphnia magna and LC₅₀/LD₅₀ for Eisenia fetida, Danio rerio, and Coturnix coturnix were: 13.15 mg/L,32.18 mg/kg dry soil,292.6 mg/L,452.7 mg/L,5.74 g/kg dry soil and 103.9 mg/kg (roxarsone); 1.085 mg/L, <25 mg/kg dry soil, 21.1 mg/L, 4.76 mg/L, 0.346 g/kg dry soil and 672.8 mg/kg (monensin); 0.813 mg/L, 35.40 mg/kg dry soil, >400 mg/L, >2800 mg/L, >15 g/kg dry soil, >2000 mg/kg (lincomycin). These results showed that the environmental effects of veterinary drug residues should not be neglected, due to their mobility in environmental media and potential toxic effects on environmental organisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Residues in the Environment)

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16 pages, 2873 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insights into Mechanisms of Electrochemical Drug Degradation in Their Mixtures in the Split-Flow Reactor

by Aleksandra Pieczyńska, Stalin Andres Ochoa-Chavez, Patrycja Wilczewska, Aleksandra Bielicka-Giełdoń and Ewa M. Siedlecka

Molecules 2019, 24(23), 4356; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24234356 - 28 Nov 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2658

Abstract

The recirculating split-flow batch reactor with a cell divided into anolyte and catholyte compartments for oxidation mixture of cytostatic drugs (CD) was tested. In this study, kinetics and mechanisms of electrochemical oxidization of two mixtures: 5-FU/CP and IF/CP were investigated. The order of the CD degradation rate in single drug solutions and in mixtures was found to be 5-FU < CP < IF. In the 5-FU/CP mixture, k_app of 5-FU increased, while k_app of CP decreased comparing to the single drug solutions. No effect on the degradation rate was found in the CP/IF mixture. The presence of a second drug in the 5-FU/CP mixture significantly altered mineralization and nitrogen removal efficiency, while these processes were inhibited in IF/CP. The experiments in the different electrolytes showed that •OH and sulphate active species can participate in the drug’s degradation. The k_app of the drugs was accelerated by the presence of Cl⁻ ions in the solution. Chlorine active species played the main role in the production of gaseous nitrogen products and increased the mineralisation. Good results were obtained for the degradation and mineralisation processes in mixtures of drugs in municipal wastewater-treated effluent, which is beneficial from the technological and practical point of view. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Residues in the Environment)

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Review

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31 pages, 15239 KiB

Open AccessReview

Selected Pharmaceuticals in Different Aquatic Compartments: Part II—Toxicity and Environmental Risk Assessment

by André Pereira, Liliana Silva, Célia Laranjeiro, Celeste Lino and Angelina Pena

Molecules 2020, 25(8), 1796; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25081796 - 14 Apr 2020

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 4012

Abstract

Potential risks associated with releases of human pharmaceuticals into the environment have become an increasingly important issue in environmental health. This concern has been driven by the widespread detection of pharmaceuticals in all aquatic compartments. Therefore, 22 pharmaceuticals, 6 metabolites and transformation products, belonging to 7 therapeutic groups, were selected to perform a review on their toxicity and environmental risk assessment (ERA) in different aquatic compartments, important issues to tackle the water framework directive (WFD). The toxicity data collected reported, with the exception of anxiolytics, at least one toxicity value for concentrations below 1 µg L⁻¹. The results obtained for the ERA revealed risk quotients (RQs) higher than 1 in all the aquatic bodies and for the three trophic levels, algae, invertebrates and fish, posing ecotoxicological pressure in all of these compartments. The therapeutic groups with higher RQs were hormones, antiepileptics, anti-inflammatories and antibiotics. Unsurprisingly, RQs values were highest in wastewaters, however, less contaminated water bodies such as groundwaters still presented maximum values up to 91,150 regarding 17α-ethinylestradiol in fish. Overall, these results present an important input for setting prioritizing measures and sustainable strategies, minimizing their impact in the aquatic environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Residues in the Environment)

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33 pages, 15101 KiB

Open AccessReview

Selected Pharmaceuticals in Different Aquatic Compartments: Part I—Source, Fate and Occurrence

by André Pereira, Liliana Silva, Célia Laranjeiro, Celeste Lino and Angelina Pena

Molecules 2020, 25(5), 1026; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25051026 - 25 Feb 2020

Cited by 71 | Viewed by 5270

Abstract

Potential risks associated with releases of human pharmaceuticals into the environment have become an increasingly important issue in environmental health. This concern has been driven by the widespread detection of pharmaceuticals in all aquatic compartments. Therefore, 22 pharmaceuticals, 6 metabolites and transformation products, belonging to 7 therapeutic groups, were selected to perform a systematic review on their source, fate and occurrence in different aquatic compartments, important issues to tackle the Water Framework Directive (WFD). The results obtained evidence that concentrations of pharmaceuticals are present, in decreasing order, in wastewater influents (WWIs), wastewater effluents (WWEs) and surface waters, with values up to 14 mg L⁻¹ for ibuprofen in WWIs. The therapeutic groups which presented higher detection frequencies and concentrations were anti-inflammatories, antiepileptics, antibiotics and lipid regulators. These results present a broad and specialized background, enabling a complete overview on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic compartments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Residues in the Environment)

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57 pages, 7635 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Influence of Ionic Liquids on the Effectiveness of Analytical Methods Used in the Monitoring of Human and Veterinary Pharmaceuticals in Biological and Environmental Samples—Trends and Perspectives

by Natalia Treder, Tomasz Bączek, Katarzyna Wychodnik, Justyna Rogowska, Lidia Wolska and Alina Plenis

Molecules 2020, 25(2), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25020286 - 10 Jan 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4658

Abstract

Recent years have seen the increased utilization of ionic liquids (ILs) in the development and optimization of analytical methods. Their unique and eco-friendly properties and the ability to modify their structure allows them to be useful both at the sample preparation stage and at the separation stage of the analytes. The use of ILs for the analysis of pharmaceuticals seems particularly interesting because of their systematic delivery to the environment. Nowadays, they are commonly detected in many countries at very low concentration levels. However, due to their specific physiological activity, pharmaceuticals are responsible for bioaccumulation and toxic effects in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems as well as possibly upsetting the body’s equilibrium, leading to the dangerous phenomenon of drug resistance. This review will provide a comprehensive summary of the use of ILs in various sample preparation procedures and separation methods for the determination of pharmaceuticals in environmental and biological matrices based on liquid-based chromatography (LC, SFC, TLC), gas chromatography (GC) and electromigration techniques (e.g., capillary electrophoresis (CE)). Moreover, the advantages and disadvantages of ILs, which can appear during extraction and separation, will be presented and attention will be given to the criteria to be followed during the selection of ILs for specific applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Residues in the Environment)

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