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Tuberculosis Epidemiology and Control in Multi-Host Systems

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A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2020) | Viewed by 38605

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Christian Gortázar

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Guest Editor

SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC at University of Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain
Interests: Wildlife epidemiology and disease control; Tuberculosis; Emerging diseases

Prof. Dr. Jose de la Fuente

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Guest Editor

1. SaBio Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, IREC (CSIC, UCLM, JCCM), Ciudad Real, Spain
2. Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
Interests: infectious diseases; systems biology of host-vector-pathogen interactions; gene regulation; pathogenesis; functional genomics; evolution and immunology; ticks and tick-borne diseases; intracellular bacteria (Rickettsia, Mycobacteria, Brucella); vaccinology; biotechnology
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Animal tuberculosis (zoonotic tuberculosis, TB), caused by infection with Mycobacterium bovis and other closely related members of the M. tuberculosis complex (MTC), is a global problem affecting human health and livelihood, animal health and welfare, and conservation. Despite MTC being a typical multi-host pathogen, in most industrialized countries, existing TB control schemes are restricted to the target domestic host, cattle. In developing countries, where the zoonotic risk is highest, TB control schemes in livestock are generally incipient or even absent. In both situations, examples of holistic TB control approaches, i.e. those addressing all suitable domestic and wild maintenance hosts and exploring the benefits of all suitable TB-control tools, remain exceptional. If nothing changes, animal TB will remain one of the biggest health challenges of the 21^st century. Science contributes innovative approaches for TB control, with new insights coming from several fields including the global fight to control human TB caused by M. tuberculosis; new vaccine candidates; characterization of host-pathogen molecular interactions for the identification of new targets for disease diagnosis, control and prevention; novel molecular epidemiology results at the cell, host and population scale; information on animal ecology, epidemiology and modeling in multi-host systems; and social science and policy aspects of animal TB control, among other fields. These novelties need to be taken up by both existing and incipient TB-control schemes in order to benefit from a science-based TB control policy. This Special Issue welcomes contributions (original papers and reviews) on any of the aforementioned aspects and will equally value critical and constructive evaluations of existing TB control schemes.

Prof. Dr. Christian Gortázar
Prof. Dr. Jose de la Fuente
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Animal tuberculosis
Epidemiology and control
Host-pathogen molecular interactions
Insights from control of human tuberculosis
Integrated tuberculosis control
Modeling
Molecular epidemiology
Molecular biology of host-pathogen interactions
Multi-host systems
Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex
New targets for diagnosis, control and prevention
New vaccine candidates
Social science and policy aspects of animal tuberculosis control
Wildlife-livestock interface

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 1670 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Immunomodulatory Effects of Recombinant Mycobacterium smegmatis Expressing Antigen-85B Epitopes in Infected J774A.1 Murine Macrophages

by Nur-Ayuni Kadir, Armando Acosta, Maria E. Sarmiento and Mohd-Nor Norazmi

Pathogens 2020, 9(12), 1000; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9121000 - 29 Nov 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2415

Abstract

Tuberculosis (TB) causes more than 1.5 million deaths each year, remaining a significant global health problem. Mycobacterium smegmatis (M. smegmatis) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) share features, which support the use of the former use in new generation TB vaccine development. In a previous study, the specific humoral and cellular immunogenicity of a recombinant M. smegmatis strain expressing epitopes from M. tuberculosis Ag85B protein (rMs064), was demonstrated in mice. In the current study, the immunomodulatory capacity of rMs064 was determined in a J774A.1 murine macrophage cell line. To determine the immunomodulatory effect of rMs064 in J774A.1 macrophages, the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and production of nitric oxide (NO) was evaluated. The expression of activation surface markers (MHC-II, CD40, CD80 and CD86) and the production of cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-12p70 and IL-6) was also determined in rMs064 infected J774A.1 macrophages. Our findings showed the ability of rMs064 to induce substantial increases in macrophage activation markers expression; MHC class II and CD40, compared with M. smegmatis transformed with the empty vector (rMs012) and uninfected cells. rMs064 induced significant increases in IL-12p70 compared to uninfected cells. The expression of iNOS and CD86, and the production of IL-1β, and TNF-α were increased in rMs064 and rMs012, compared to uninfected cells. rMs064 demonstrated its immunomodulatory ability by stimulating the innate immune response, which supports its further evaluation as a TB vaccine candidate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tuberculosis Epidemiology and Control in Multi-Host Systems)

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17 pages, 1806 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bovine Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis) Outbreak Duration in Cattle Herds in Ireland: A Retrospective Observational Study

by Andrew W. Byrne, Damien Barrett, Philip Breslin, Jamie M. Madden, James O'Keeffe and Eoin Ryan

Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 815; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100815 - 5 Oct 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3054

Abstract

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) outbreaks, caused by Mycobacterium bovis infection, are a costly animal health challenge. Understanding factors associated with the duration of outbreaks, known as breakdowns, could lead to better disease management policy development. We undertook a retrospective observational study (2012–2018) and employed Finite Mixture Models (FMM) to model the outcome parameter, and to investigate how factors were associated with duration for differing subpopulations identified. In addition to traditional risk factors (e.g., herd size, bTB history), we also explored farm geographic area, parcels/farm fragmentation, metrics of intensity via nitrogen loading, and whether herds were designated controlled beef finishing units (CBFU) as potential risk factors for increased duration. The final model fitted log-normal distributions, with two latent classes (k) which partitioned the population into a subpopulation around the central tendency of the distribution, and a second around the tails of the distribution. The latter subpopulation included longer breakdowns of policy interest. Increasing duration was positively associated with recent (<3 years) TB history and the number of reactors disclosed, (log) herd size, beef herd-type relative to other herd types, number of land parcels, area, being designated a CBFU (“feedlot”) and having high annual inward cattle movements within the “tails” subpopulation. Breakdown length was negatively associated with the year of commencement of breakdown (i.e., a decreasing trend) and non-significantly with the organic nitrogen produced on the farm (N kg/hectare), a measure of stocking density. The latter finding may be due to confounding effects with herd size and area. Most variables contributed only moderately to explaining variation in breakdown duration, that is, they had moderate size effects on duration. Herd-size and CBFU had greater effect sizes on the outcome. The findings contribute to evidence-based policy formation in Ireland. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tuberculosis Epidemiology and Control in Multi-Host Systems)

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18 pages, 3015 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mycobacterium bovis Population Structure in Cattle and Local Badgers: Co-Localisation and Variation by Farm Type

by Georgina Milne, Adrian Allen, Jordon Graham, Raymond Kirke, Carl McCormick, Eleanor Presho, Robin Skuce and Andrew W. Byrne

Pathogens 2020, 9(7), 592; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9070592 - 21 Jul 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2654

Abstract

Bovine tuberculosis surveillance in Northern Ireland includes Multiple-Locus Variable number tandem repeat Analysis (MLVA) to determine the Mycobacterium bovis genetic type present in both cattle and the predominant wildlife host, the European badger (Meles meles). These data are useful for investigating clusters of infection and understanding the scale at which interspecific transmission may occur. We utilised a comprehensive dataset of routinely sampled isolates from infected cattle and from badgers killed in road-traffic accidents to investigate the spatial co-location of MLVA types in, and between, the badger and cattle populations. Furthermore, we investigated the hypothesis that the type of farming enterprise might explain some variation in this relationship. MLVA types were spatially co-localised in cattle and road-traffic accident (RTA) badger hosts, indicative of a shared epidemic. Dairy herds were more likely to have at least one MLVA type in common with nearby RTA badgers, compared to non-dairy herd types. Marginally more MLVA spatial clustering was observed in non-dairy herds, which may be a consequence of relatively more between-herd movements. For the cattle population, local transmission mechanisms such as infection from contiguous herds, infectious wildlife and short-range between-herd cattle movements appear primarily to drive the epidemic: there appears to be a more limited role for long-range movements. Animal management practices are likely to be the driving force behind this observation, as beef rearing is associated with elevated numbers of animal movements compared to dairy herds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tuberculosis Epidemiology and Control in Multi-Host Systems)

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16 pages, 4305 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Local Lung Immune Response to Mycobacterium bovis Challenge after BCG and M. bovis Heat-Inactivated Vaccination in European Badger (Meles meles)

by Cristina Blanco Vázquez, Miguel Prieto, Marta Barral, Ramón Antonio Juste, Sandrine Lesellier, Francisco Javier Salguero, Dipesh Davé, Ileana Zorhaya Martínez, María Gracia de Garnica García, Rosa Casais and Ana Balseiro

Pathogens 2020, 9(6), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9060456 - 9 Jun 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2788

Abstract

Tuberculosis (TB) vaccination could be used as a key part of integrated strategies for the disease’s control if an effective and safe vaccine under field conditions is obtained. Recent studies in Spain have evaluated the protective efficacy of two oral vaccines against experimental challenge with live intra-bronchial Mycobacterium bovis in captive badgers: the live-attenuated M. bovis BCG vaccine (Danish strain) and a heat-inactivated M. bovis (HIMB) vaccine. With the objective of increasing the knowledge of the cellular development progress of infection and generating further tools to discriminate between mild and severe TB lesions between and within animals, the immunopathology of tuberculous lesions was studied to characterize the local immune response (cell type profile) within lung granulomas from control (non-vaccinated), BCG vaccinated and HIMB-vaccinated experimentally infected badgers with M. bovis. Four immunohistochemical protocols, for the specific detection of macrophages, T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes and plasma cells within TB granulomas in formalin fixed sections of the right middle lung lobe (lobe targeted for the M. bovis delivery), were performed. Immunolabelled sections were scanned and five randomly selected areas were analyzed with digital image analysis software. The results were expressed as the proportion of the positively immunolabelled area within the total area of the selected site. Data was analyzed using the statistical analysis software (SAS). In the three treatment groups, macrophages were the most abundant inflammatory cells within the granulomas, followed by B lymphocytes and plasma cells. T lymphocyes were absent in those granulomas. This would suggest a predominance of a non-specific innate response mediated by phagocytic cells over an adaptative humoral immune response. The proportion of macrophages and plasma cells was higher in BCG and HIMB-vaccinated badgers, respectively, suggesting the establishment of an adaptative humoral response in HIMB-vaccinated badgers. The lower bacterial load at the lung level, as well as the volume of lesions in lungs using magnetic resonance imaging in badgers with the HIMB vaccine in relation with local immune response presented, must be highlighted, since it would be an advantage in favor of its use under field conditions in terms of reducing TB transmission and environmental contamination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tuberculosis Epidemiology and Control in Multi-Host Systems)

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25 pages, 18867 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Determinants of Tuberculosis in the Ungulate Host Community of Doñana National Park

by Patricia Barroso, José A. Barasona, Pelayo Acevedo, Pablo Palencia, Francisco Carro, Juan José Negro, María José Torres, Christian Gortázar, Ramón C. Soriguer and Joaquín Vicente

Pathogens 2020, 9(6), 445; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9060445 - 5 Jun 2020

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 3711

Abstract

Animal tuberculosis (TB) is endemic in wild boar (Sus scrofa), red deer (Cervus elaphus), fallow deer (Dama dama) and cattle in south and central Spain. In order to clarify the processes that operate in the medium and long-term, we studied TB at the wildlife–livestock interface in Doñana National Park for 14 years (2006–2018) in relation to host density, stochastic factors (rainfall) and environmental features (e.g., aggregation points such as waterholes). Wild boar showed the highest prevalence of TB (76.7%), followed by red deer (42.5%), fallow deer (14.4%) and cattle (10.7%). We found evidence of relevant epidemiological processes which operate over the long-term and interact with host and community ecology. Interestingly, the effect of high wild boar population density on increased TB rates was mediated by sows, which could determine high incidence in young individuals already in maternal groups. Rainfall significantly determined a higher risk of TB in male red deer, probably mediated by sex-related differences in life history traits that determined more susceptibility and/or exposure in comparison to females. The positive association between the prevalence of TB in fallow deer and cattle may indicate significant interspecies transmission (in either direction) and/or similar exposure to risk factors mediated by ecological overlapping of grazing species. The identification of long-term drivers of TB provided evidence that its control in extensive pastoral systems can only be achieved by targeting all relevant hosts and integrating measures related to all the factors involved, such as: population abundance and the aggregation of wild and domestic ungulates, environmental exposure to mycobacteria, cattle testing and culling campaigns and adjustments of appropriate densities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tuberculosis Epidemiology and Control in Multi-Host Systems)

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11 pages, 810 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantification of the Animal Tuberculosis Multi-Host Community Offers Insights for Control

by Nuno Santos, Céline Richomme, Telmo Nunes, Joaquín Vicente, Paulo C. Alves, José de la Fuente, Margarida Correia-Neves, María-Laura Boschiroli, Richard Delahay and Christian Gortázar

Pathogens 2020, 9(6), 421; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9060421 - 28 May 2020

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 3472

Abstract

Animal tuberculosis (TB) is a multi-host zoonotic disease whose prevalence in cattle herds in Europe has been increasing, despite a huge investment in eradication. The composition of the host community is a fundamental driver of pathogen transmission, and yet this has not been formally quantified for animal TB in Europe. We quantified multi-host communities of animal TB, using stochastic models to estimate the number of infected domestic and wild hosts in three regions: officially TB-free Central–Western Europe, and two largely TB-endemic regions, the Iberian Peninsula and Britain and Ireland. We show that the estimated number of infected animals in the three regions was 290,059–1,605,612 and the numbers of infected non-bovine domestic and wild hosts always exceeded those of infected cattle, with ratios ranging from 3.3 (1.3–19.6):1 in Britain and Ireland to 84.3 (20.5–864):1 in the Iberian Peninsula. Our results illustrate for the first time the extent to which animal TB systems in some regions of Europe are dominated by non-bovine domestic and wild species. These findings highlight the need to adapt current strategies for effective future control of the disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tuberculosis Epidemiology and Control in Multi-Host Systems)

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13 pages, 1908 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluation of Volatile Organic Compounds Obtained from Breath and Feces to Detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex in Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) in Doñana National Park, Spain

by Pauline Nol, Radu Ionescu, Tesfalem Geremariam Welearegay, Jose Angel Barasona, Joaquin Vicente, Kelvin de Jesus Beleño-Sáenz, Irati Barrenetxea, Maria Jose Torres, Florina Ionescu and Jack Rhyan

Pathogens 2020, 9(5), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9050346 - 2 May 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2869

Abstract

The presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) in wild swine, such as in wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Eurasia, is cause for serious concern. Development of accurate, efficient, and noninvasive methods to detect MTBC in wild swine would be highly beneficial to surveillance and disease management efforts in affected populations. Here, we describe the first report of identification of volatile organic compounds (VOC) obtained from the breath and feces of wild boar to distinguish between MTBC-positive and MTBC-negative boar. We analyzed breath and fecal VOC collected from 15 MTBC-positive and 18 MTBC-negative wild boar in Donaña National Park in Southeast Spain. Analyses were divided into three age classes, namely, adults (>2 years), sub-adults (12–24 months), and juveniles (<12 months). We identified significant compounds by applying the two-tailed statistical t-test for two samples assuming unequal variance, with an α value of 0.05. One statistically significant VOC was identified in breath samples from adult wild boar and 14 were identified in breath samples from juvenile wild boar. One statistically significant VOC was identified in fecal samples collected from sub-adult wild boar and three were identified in fecal samples from juvenile wild boar. In addition, discriminant function analysis (DFA) was used to build classification models for MTBC prediction in juvenile animals. Using DFA, we were able to distinguish between MTBC-positive juvenile wild boar and MTBC-negative juvenile wild boar using breath VOC or fecal VOC. Based on our results, further research is warranted and should be performed using larger sample sizes, as well as wild boar from various geographic locations, to verify these compounds as biomarkers for MTBC infection in this species. This new approach to detect MTBC infection in free-ranging wild boar potentially comprises a reliable and efficient screening tool for surveillance in animal populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tuberculosis Epidemiology and Control in Multi-Host Systems)

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11 pages, 952 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Antibodies against Mycobacterium bovis in Oral Fluid from Eurasian Wild Boar

by Jose A. Barasona, Sandra Barroso-Arévalo, Belén Rivera, Christian Gortázar and Jose M. Sánchez-Vizcaíno

Pathogens 2020, 9(4), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9040242 - 25 Mar 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2266

Abstract

The presence of Mycobacterium bovis and other members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC) is a main concern in wildlife populations such as the Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa). Tests detecting antibodies against the MTC are valuable for tuberculosis (TB) monitoring and control and particularly useful in suids. The development of accurate, efficient, and non-invasive new tools to detect exposure to MTC would be highly beneficial for improving disease surveillance. This study aimed to determine if antibodies against MTC could be detected in oral fluid (OF) samples by a new ELISA test (IgG detection) from naturally TB-infected wild boar. For this, individual, paired serum and OF samples were collected from 148 live wild boar in two TB-status areas from Spain and quantitatively used to validate the new ELISA test. Antibodies against MTC were widely detected in OF samples, for which a significant positive correlation (r = 0.83) was found with the validated serology test. OF ELISA sensitivity and specificity were 67.3% and 100%, respectively. The results of this work suggest that OF samples have the potential to be used for MTC diagnosis as a further step in TB surveillance and control in suid populations. Based on our results, further research is warranted and could be performed using non-invasive new tools directly in field conditions to detect exposure to MTC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tuberculosis Epidemiology and Control in Multi-Host Systems)

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9 pages, 532 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Inactivated Mycobacterium bovis Vaccination on Molokai-Origin Wild Pigs Experimentally Infected with Virulent M. bovis

by Pauline Nol, Morgan E. Wehtje, Richard A. Bowen, Suelee Robbe-Austerman, Tyler C. Thacker, Kristina Lantz, Jack C. Rhyan, Laurie A. Baeten, Ramón A. Juste, Iker A. Sevilla, Christian Gortázar and Joaquín Vicente

Pathogens 2020, 9(3), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9030199 - 7 Mar 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2992

Abstract

The wild pig population on Molokai, Hawaii, USA is a possible reservoir for bovine tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium bovis, and has been implicated in decades past as the source of disease for the island’s domestic cattle. Heat-inactivated vaccines have been effective for reducing disease prevalence in wild boar in Spain and could prove useful for managing M. bovis in Molokai wild pigs. We designed an experiment to test this vaccine in wild pigs of Molokai genetics. Fifteen 3–4-month-old pigs were orally administered 10⁶–10⁷ colony forming units (cfu) of heat-inactivated M. bovis (Vaccinates; n = 8; 0.2 mL) or phosphate buffered saline (Controls; n = 7; 0.2 mL). Each dose was administered in a 0.5 mL tube embedded in a fruit candy/cracked corn mix. Boosters were given seven weeks post-prime in the same manner and dose. Nineteen weeks post-prime, pigs were orally challenged with 1 × 10⁶ cfu of virulent M. bovis. Twelve weeks post-challenge, pigs were euthanized and necropsied, at which time 23 different tissues from the head, thorax, and abdomen were collected and examined. Each tissue was assigned a lesion score. Ordinal lesion score data were analyzed using non-parametric Wilcoxon Signed Rank test. Effect size was calculated using Cohen’s d. Four of eight Vaccinates and four of seven Controls had gross and microscopic lesions, as well as culture-positive tissues. Vaccinates had statistically lower lesion scores than Controls in the following areas: gross thoracic lesion scores (p = 0.013 Cohen’s d = 0.33) and microscopic thoracic lesion scores (p = 0.002, Cohen’s d = 0.39). There were no differences in head lesion scores alone, both gross and microscopic, nor were there differences when comparing combined gross and microscopic head and thoracic lesion scores. These results are indicative that this vaccination protocol affords a modest degree of infection containment with this vaccine in Molokai wild pigs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tuberculosis Epidemiology and Control in Multi-Host Systems)

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16 pages, 2531 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Dynamic Network of Interactions in the Wildlife-Livestock Interface in Mediterranean Spain: An Epidemiological Point of View

by Roxana Triguero-Ocaña, Beatriz Martínez-López, Joaquín Vicente, José A. Barasona, Jordi Martínez-Guijosa and Pelayo Acevedo

Pathogens 2020, 9(2), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9020120 - 13 Feb 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3639

Abstract

The correct management of diseases that are transmitted between wildlife and livestock requires a reliable estimate of the pathogen transmission rate. The calculation of this parameter is a challenge for epidemiologists, since transmission can occur through multiple pathways. The social network analysis is a widely used tool in epidemiology due to its capacity to identify individuals and communities with relevant roles for pathogen transmission. In the present work, we studied the dynamic network of interactions in a complex epidemiological scenario using information from different methodologies. In 2015, nine red deer, seven fallow deer, six wild boar and nine cattle were simultaneously monitored using GPS-GSM-Proximity collars in Doñana National Park. In addition, 16 proximity loggers were set in aggregation points. Using the social network analysis, we studied the dynamic network of interactions, including direct and indirect interactions, between individuals of different species and the potential transmission of pathogens within this network. The results show a high connection between species through indirect interactions, with a marked seasonality in the conformation of new interactions. Within the network, we differentiated four communities that included individuals of all the species. Regarding the transmission of pathogens, we observed the important role that fallow deer could be playing in the maintenance and transmission of pathogens to livestock. The present work shows the need to consider different types of methodologies in order to understand the complete functioning of the network of interactions at the wildlife/livestock interface. It also provides a methodological approach applicable to the management of shared diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tuberculosis Epidemiology and Control in Multi-Host Systems)

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18 pages, 3128 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tuberculosis Epidemiology and Badger (Meles meles) Spatial Ecology in a Hot-Spot Area in Atlantic Spain

by Pelayo Acevedo, Miguel Prieto, Pablo Quirós, Isabel Merediz, Lucía de Juan, José Antonio Infantes-Lorenzo, Roxana Triguero-Ocaña and Ana Balseiro

Pathogens 2019, 8(4), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8040292 - 10 Dec 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3863

Abstract

We provide a temporal overview (from 2012 to 2018) of the outcomes of tuberculosis (TB) in the cattle and badger populations in a hot-spot in Asturias (Atlantic Spain). We also study the badger’s spatial ecology from an epidemiological perspective in order to describe hazardous behavior in relation to TB transmission between cattle and badgers. Culture and single intradermal tuberculin test (SITT) were available for cattle as part of the National Program for the Eradication of TB. A field survey was also carried out in order to determine the paddocks and buildings used by each farm, and the information obtained was stored by using geographic information systems. Moreover, eighty-three badgers were submitted for necropsy and subsequent bacteriological studies. Ten badgers were also tracked, using global positioning system (GPS) collars. The prevalence of TB in cattle herds in the hot-spot increased from 2.2% in 2012 to 20% in 2016; it then declined to 0.0% in 2018. In contrast, the TB prevalence in badgers increased notably (from 5.55% in 2012–2015 to 10.64% in 2016–2018). Both cattle and badgers shared the same strain of Mycobacterium bovis. The collared badgers preferred paddocks used by TB-positive herds in spring and summer (when they were more active). The males occupied larger home ranges than the females (Khr95: males 149.78 ± 25.84 ha and females 73.37 ± 22.91 ha; Kcr50: males 29.83 ± 5.69 ha and females 13.59 ± 5.00 ha), and the home ranges were smaller in autumn and winter than in summer. The averages of the index of daily and maximum distances traveled by badgers were 1.88 ± (SD) 1.20 km and 1.99 ± 0.71 km, respectively. One of them presented a dispersive behavior with a maximum range of 18.3 km. The most preferred habitat was apple orchards in all seasons, with the exception of winter, in which they preferred pastures. Land uses and landscape structure, which have been linked with certain livestock-management practices, provide a scenario of great potential for badger–cattle interactions, thus enhancing the importance of the badgers’ ecology, which could potentially transmit TB back to cattle in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tuberculosis Epidemiology and Control in Multi-Host Systems)

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Review

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31 pages, 493 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Development and Challenges in Animal Tuberculosis Vaccination

by Ana Balseiro, Jobin Thomas, Christian Gortázar and María A. Risalde

Pathogens 2020, 9(6), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9060472 - 15 Jun 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3734

Abstract

Vaccination with Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) constituted a major advance in the prevention of human tuberculosis (TB) in the beginning of the past century. BCG has also a clear potential for use in animals and, in particular, in the main domestic species subjected to TB control programs, cattle. Nowadays, the use of BCG vaccination against TB in cattle is not permitted by European Union legislation because BCG can induce a cellular immune response producing diagnostic interference in the eradication programs based on tuberculin single and comparative intradermal tests imposed worldwide. In this review, we recall the history of TB vaccination as well as different vaccine trials and the response to vaccination in both domestic and wild animals. Promising potential inactivated vaccines are also reviewed. Research studies are mainly focused to improve vaccine efficacy, and at the same time to ensure its easy administration, safety and stability in the environment. Great challenges remain, particularly in terms of vaccine candidates and also in the acceptance of vaccination. Vaccination should be included in a strategic plan for integrated control of TB under a “one health” perspective, which also includes other measures such as improved biosafety on farms to avoid or decrease contact between domestic and wild animals or control of wildlife reservoirs to avoid overabundance that may favor infection maintenance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tuberculosis Epidemiology and Control in Multi-Host Systems)

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