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25 pages, 1787 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of the Synergetic Effect of Co-Pyrolysis of Lignite and High-Density Polyethylene Aiming to Improve Utilization of Low-Rank Coal

by Ivan Kojić, Achim Bechtel, Nikoleta Aleksić, Dragana Životić, Snežana Trifunović, Gordana Gajica and Ksenija Stojanović

Polymers 2021, 13(5), 759; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13050759 - 28 Feb 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2889

Abstract

The mutual impact of low-quality lignite and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) during open system pyrolysis was investigated, aiming to improve utilization of lignite with simultaneous treatment of HDPE waste. Pyrolysis of lignite, HDPE, and their mixture (mass ratio, 1:1) was performed at temperatures 400, [...] Read more.

The mutual impact of low-quality lignite and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) during open system pyrolysis was investigated, aiming to improve utilization of lignite with simultaneous treatment of HDPE waste. Pyrolysis of lignite, HDPE, and their mixture (mass ratio, 1:1) was performed at temperatures 400, 450, 500, 550, and 600 °C. Initial substrates and pyrolysis products were characterized by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), specific carbon isotope analysis of individual hydrocarbons (δ¹³C), Rock-Eval pyrolysis, and elemental analysis. The positive synergetic effect during co-pyrolysis of lignite/HDPE mixture was observed at temperatures ≥450 °C, with the greatest being at 500 °C. The highest yield of liquid co-pyrolysis products with a similar composition to that of crude oils is also noticed at 500 °C. The yields of liquid and gaseous products and quality of pyrolytic products obtained by co-pyrolysis of lignite/HDPE mixture are notably improved compared with pyrolysis of lignite alone. On the other hand, data obtained from pyrolysis of HDPE alone indicate that it cannot be concurrent to well-developed catalytic thermal processes for polymer recycling. However, concerning the huge amount of produced HDPE, at least part of this plastic material can be reused for advanced thermal treatment of lignite, particularly in countries where this low-rank coal represents the main source of energy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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18 pages, 2895 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Improving the Processability and Properties of Mixed Polyolefin Post-Consumer Plastics for Piping Applications

by Emilia Garofalo, Luciano Di Maio, Paola Scarfato, Arianna Pietrosanto, Antonio Protopapa and Loredana Incarnato

Polymers 2021, 13(1), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13010071 - 27 Dec 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3131

Abstract

This study focuses on the upgrading strategies to make Fil-s (acronym for film-small), a polyolefin-based material coming from the mechanical recycling of post-consumer flexible packaging, fit for re-use in the piping sector. The effects of washing treatments (at cold and hot conditions) and [...] Read more.

This study focuses on the upgrading strategies to make Fil-s (acronym for film-small), a polyolefin-based material coming from the mechanical recycling of post-consumer flexible packaging, fit for re-use in the piping sector. The effects of washing treatments (at cold and hot conditions) and the addition of an experimental compatibilizer on the chemical-physical properties of Fil-s were first assessed. The measurements of some key properties (density, melt flow index, flexural modulus, yield strength), for both Fil-s as such and the different developed Fil-s based systems, was also conducted in order to evaluate the suitability of this complex and challenging waste stream to replace virgin PE-based pipe and fitting products, in compliance to ASTM D3350 standard. The outcomes of the present work contributed to define a code, for each Fil-s system investigated, useful for identifying the level of their performance in piping applications. All the recyclates were extruded as pipes by using a pilot scale plant, but the process resulted more stable and continuous with the compatibilized Fil-s, as it was deducible from its flow properties. Moreover, the best mechanical performances were exhibited by the hot-washed Fil-s pipes, with an increase in pipe stiffness equal to 65% respect to the unwashed sample. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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12 pages, 1484 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polystyrene Biodegradation by Tenebrio molitor Larvae: Identification of Generated Substances Using a GC-MS Untargeted Screening Method

by Emmanouil Tsochatzis, Joao Alberto Lopes, Helen Gika and Georgios Theodoridis

Polymers 2021, 13(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13010017 - 23 Dec 2020

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5144

Abstract

A GC-MS method has been applied to screen and evaluate the generation of chemical compounds during the biodegradation of polystyrene (PS) with Tenebrio molitor larvae. Several resulting compounds have been identified, including trimers 2,4,6-triphenyl-1-hexene and 1,3,5-triphenylcyclohexane, the volatiles acetophenone and cumyl alcohol, and [...] Read more.

A GC-MS method has been applied to screen and evaluate the generation of chemical compounds during the biodegradation of polystyrene (PS) with Tenebrio molitor larvae. Several resulting compounds have been identified, including trimers 2,4,6-triphenyl-1-hexene and 1,3,5-triphenylcyclohexane, the volatiles acetophenone and cumyl alcohol, and 2,4-di-tert butylphenol, a non-intentionally added substance (NIAS) present in the plastic material. The PS monomers styrene and α-methyl styrene were also identified in the extracts. Bioactive molecules present in the biomass of the studied insects were identified, such as the free fatty acids myristic, palmitic, and oleic acid. Undecanoic acid was also found, but in lower mass fractions. Finally, biochemically formatted amides resulting from their respective fatty acids were identified, namely tetradecanamide, hexadecanamide and oleamide. The formation of all these substances seems to suggest enzymatic and biochemical activity occurring during the biodegradation of PS, and their amounts varied throughout the experience. The overall degradation rate of PS resulted in a 13% rate, which highlights the potential of biorecycling using these insects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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20 pages, 3223 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recyclable Multilayer Packaging by Means of Thermoreversibly Crosslinking Adhesive in the Context of Food Law

by Katharina M. A. Kaiser, Johann Ewender and Frank Welle

Polymers 2020, 12(12), 2988; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12122988 - 15 Dec 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3967

Abstract

Lacking recyclability of multilayer packaging can be overcome by using a thermoreversible crosslinking adhesive consisting of maleimide- and furan-functionalized polyurethane-(PU-)prepolymers, reacting in a Diels–Alder-reaction. Here, the furan-functionalized PU-prepolymer carries furan-side-chains to avoid the usage of an additional crosslinking agent. Thus, N‑(2‑hydroxyethyl)maleimide and [...] Read more.

Lacking recyclability of multilayer packaging can be overcome by using a thermoreversible crosslinking adhesive consisting of maleimide- and furan-functionalized polyurethane-(PU-)prepolymers, reacting in a Diels–Alder-reaction. Here, the furan-functionalized PU-prepolymer carries furan-side-chains to avoid the usage of an additional crosslinking agent. Thus, N‑(2‑hydroxyethyl)maleimide and furfurylamine are the only two chemicals contained in the adhesive that are not listed in the appendix of EU Regulation 10/2011. Using migration modelling, it could be shown that, at 23 °C, both chemicals have lag-times of only a few minutes if 45 µm PE is used as a barrier. However, if the residual content is below 30 mg/kg, the legally specified maximum amount of 0.01 mg/kg food is not reached. After determining the diffusion coefficients and the activation energy of diffusion through ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH), it could be determined that the lag-time of the migrants can be extended to at least 9 years by the use of 3 µm EVOH. From a food law point of view, the use of the described adhesive is possible if the above‑mentioned measures are complied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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20 pages, 3238 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Equipment for Injection Molding of Polymer Products Filled with Recycled Polymer Waste

by Oleg Synyuk, Janusz Musiał, Borys Zlotenko and Tetiana Kulik

Polymers 2020, 12(11), 2725; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12112725 - 17 Nov 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2874

Abstract

Polymer waste of light industry and other industries is processed by chemical recycling and mechanical grinding. Modern equipment for polymer waste processing has the following drawbacks: significant energy consumption and reduced performance properties of recycled polymer. New technological processes and equipment for polymer [...] Read more.

Polymer waste of light industry and other industries is processed by chemical recycling and mechanical grinding. Modern equipment for polymer waste processing has the following drawbacks: significant energy consumption and reduced performance properties of recycled polymer. New technological processes and equipment for polymer waste recycling have been developed for the manufacture of light industry polymer products with increased performance characteristics. The manufacturing of such products was made possible by the development of the mathematical model, which describes the movement of a mixture of main polymer material and particles of recycled polymer waste in the process of filling a mold cavity. The model, in contrast to the existing models, allows observing the formation of the polymer product structure containing recycled waste particles. Improvement in the performance characteristics of shoe soles made by the injection molding of a mixture of polyvinylchloride and particles of recycled polyvinylchloride was confirmed by experimental tests of breaking strength and fatigue life. The results of these tests can be used in the design of processing equipment to obtain waste particles of the required shape and size and in the design of molds to provide the required concentration and orientation of waste particles in light industry polymer products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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14 pages, 4921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Fire Performances of PEAL: More Second-Life Options for Recycled Tetra Pak^®

by Fulvia Cravero and Alberto Frache

Polymers 2020, 12(10), 2357; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12102357 - 14 Oct 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2514

Abstract

The purpose of this work was to evaluate and improve the flammability and combustion behavior of the polyethylene-based material obtained from the recycling of Tetra Pak^® (PEAL) to widen its use to applications where these properties are required. Firstly, its thermal stability [...] Read more.

The purpose of this work was to evaluate and improve the flammability and combustion behavior of the polyethylene-based material obtained from the recycling of Tetra Pak^® (PEAL) to widen its use to applications where these properties are required. Firstly, its thermal stability was investigated with thermogravimetric analysis, resulting in an enhancement in the main degradation step temperature (from 385 °C to 421 °C) due to the presence of the aluminum-flakes. Then, to improve the poor flammability (HB in UL-94 test) and combustion behavior (Fire Performance Index of 0.07) of the raw material, two flame retardant approaches were tested: an intumescent system made of ammonium polyphosphate and pentaerythritol, and magnesium hydroxide. In addition, the effectiveness of polyethylene as a charring agent was evaluated. Characterization was made with UL-94, cone calorimeter, and morphologic analysis. For all the materials tested, the temperature of the main weight loss step increased and the flammability rating improved (V2 for intumescent and V0 for magnesium hydroxide reached). Moreover, fire hazard decreased (Fire Performance Index of 0.15 and 0.55; Flame Retardancy Index of 2.6 and 10.0). Referring to the morphology, full compatibility was found in the PEAL–magnesium hydroxide compound, while PEAL-intumescent appeared as a heterogeneous system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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12 pages, 1844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recycling of a Biodegradable Polymer Blend

by Francesco Paolo La Mantia, Luigi Botta, Maria Chiara Mistretta, Antonino Di Fiore and Vincenzo Titone

Polymers 2020, 12(10), 2297; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12102297 - 8 Oct 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4063

Abstract

Mechanical recycling is one of the possible ways to enhance the value of postconsumer plastic materials. However, the final performance of the recycled material will strongly depend on the quality of the selection made on the recycled product and on the degradation of [...] Read more.

Mechanical recycling is one of the possible ways to enhance the value of postconsumer plastic materials. However, the final performance of the recycled material will strongly depend on the quality of the selection made on the recycled product and on the degradation of the properties. In this context, the present study examines the effect of reprocessing for five successive extrusion cycles on the rheological, mechanical and thermal properties of a poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT)-based blend on samples reprocessed in both dry and wet conditions. The results showed that when the sample was processed after drying, degradation of the material was less than when it was processed in wet conditions. However, the experimental results showed that the decrease of rheological and mechanical properties was not so dramatic, and therefore the material could be reused in both cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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15 pages, 5559 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Properties of Coal Ash Particle-Reinforced Recycled Plastic-Based Composites for Sustainable Railway Sleepers

by Suhawn Ju, Jinyoung Yoon, Deokyong Sung and Sukhoon Pyo

Polymers 2020, 12(10), 2287; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12102287 - 6 Oct 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4219

Abstract

This experimental research investigates the mechanical properties of municipal plastic waste-based particulate composites reinforced with coal ash (CA), the by-product of thermal power plants, for sustainable railway sleepers. Six series of sustainable composites filled with inorganic mineral fillers, including CA, were prepared by [...] Read more.

This experimental research investigates the mechanical properties of municipal plastic waste-based particulate composites reinforced with coal ash (CA), the by-product of thermal power plants, for sustainable railway sleepers. Six series of sustainable composites filled with inorganic mineral fillers, including CA, were prepared by a twin-screw extruder and a compression molding machine. The effect of mix design variables—such as filler type, contents and the particle size of the filler—on mechanical properties—including tensile, compression and flexural properties—and morphology were characterized. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was employed to examine the morphology of the composites, which revealed the uniform dispersion of fillers in the polymer matrix. The study results conclude that the recycled plastic-based composite with the addition of CA up to 60% is suitable for railway sleeper applications. This experimental study may provide new insight into the railway applications of the developed composites under service loading conditions including traffic loading and earthquake. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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21 pages, 5646 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Short-Term Aging on Mechanical Properties and Morphology of Polymer-Modified Bitumen with Recycled Plastics from Waste Materials

by Clara Celauro, Edwina Saroufim, Maria Chiara Mistretta and Francesco Paolo La Mantia

Polymers 2020, 12(9), 1985; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12091985 - 31 Aug 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3339

Abstract

Polymer-modified bitumen (PMB) is bitumen that has been specifically engineered with polymer for providing enhanced performance in service. The aging of bitumen is a main aspect that is able to affect its final performance: during the production phase in a hot mix plant, [...] Read more.

Polymer-modified bitumen (PMB) is bitumen that has been specifically engineered with polymer for providing enhanced performance in service. The aging of bitumen is a main aspect that is able to affect its final performance: during the production phase in a hot mix plant, all the binders experience short-term aging due to the high processing temperature. The same is true during the production of the modified binder, when the polymer is dispersed at high temperature in the bitumen mass. This paper aims at studying the effect of short-term aging when using different types of modifiers such as recycled polymers obtained from waste materials. A 50/70 penetration-grade bitumen has been modified, and bitumen characterization has been carried out before and after short-term aging; conventional tests, viscosity measurements, and dynamical mechanical analysis have been used to investigate the properties. Different aging indices have been determined for predicting the effect of short-term aging based on the type of modifier. Furthermore, the morphology of the modified bitumen has been investigated via fluorescent microscopy, before and after aging, in order to highlight morphological changes due to aging. The results confirm that aging affects all the modified binders, due to the thermal stress imposed during PMBs production. Nevertheless, polymer modification is proved to reduce the aging effect in terms of an increase in the elastic modulus as experienced by the original binder. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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19 pages, 8154 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Computational and Experimental Approaches for Determining Scattering Parameters of OPEFB/PLA Composites to Calculate the Absorption and Attenuation Values at Microwave Frequencies

by Ahmad Fahad Ahmad, Sidek Hj Ab Aziz, Zulkifly Abbas, Daw Mohammad Abdalhadi, Ahmad Mamoun Khamis and Umar Sa’ad Aliyu

Polymers 2020, 12(9), 1919; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12091919 - 26 Aug 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3063

Abstract

This article describes attenuation and absorption measurements using the microstrip transmission line technique connected with a microwave vector network analyzer (Agilent 8750B). The magnitudes of the reflection (S₁₁) and transmission (S₂₁) coefficients obtained from the microstrip transmission line were [...] Read more.

This article describes attenuation and absorption measurements using the microstrip transmission line technique connected with a microwave vector network analyzer (Agilent 8750B). The magnitudes of the reflection (S₁₁) and transmission (S₂₁) coefficients obtained from the microstrip transmission line were used to determine the attenuation and absorption of oil palm empty fruit bunch/polylactic acid (OPEFB/PLA) composites in a frequency range between 0.20 GHz and 12 GHz at room temperature. The main structure of semi-flexible substrates (OPEFF/PLA) was fabricated using different fiber loading content extracted from oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) trees hosted in polylactic acid (PLA) using the Brabender blending machine, which ensured mixture homogeneity. The commercial software package, Computer Simulation Technology Microwave Studio (CSTMWS), was used to investigate the microstrip line technique performance by simulating and determine the S₁₁ and S₂₁ for microwave substrate materials. Results showed that the materials’ transmission, reflection, attenuation, and absorption properties could be controlled by changing the percentage of OPEFB filler in the composites. The highest absorption loss was calculated for the highest percentage of filler (70%) OPEFB at 12 GHz to be 0.763 dB, while the lowest absorption loss was calculated for the lowest percentage of filler 30% OPEFB at 12 GHz to be 0.407 dB. Finally, the simulated and measured results were in excellent agreement, but the environmental conditions slightly altered the results. From the results it is observed that the value of the dielectric constant (

ε_{r}^{'})

and loss factor (

ε_{r}^{″})

is higher for the OPEFB/PLA composites with a higher content of OPEFB filler. The dielectric constant increased from 2.746 dB to 3.486 dB, while the loss factor increased from 0.090 dB to 0.5941 dB at the highest percentage of 70% OPEFB filler. The dielectric properties obtained from the open-ended coaxial probe were required as input to FEM to calculate the S₁₁ and S₂₁ of the samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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14 pages, 3391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Artificial Neural Networks to Predict the Catalytic Pyrolysis of HDPE Using Non-Isothermal TGA Data

by Mohammed Al-Yaari and Ibrahim Dubdub

Polymers 2020, 12(8), 1813; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12081813 - 12 Aug 2020

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4104

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive kinetic study of the catalytic pyrolysis of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) utilizing thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) data. Nine runs with different catalyst (HZSM-5) to polymer mass ratios (0.5, 0.77, and 1.0) were performed at different heating rates (5, 10, and [...] Read more.

This paper presents a comprehensive kinetic study of the catalytic pyrolysis of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) utilizing thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) data. Nine runs with different catalyst (HZSM-5) to polymer mass ratios (0.5, 0.77, and 1.0) were performed at different heating rates (5, 10, and 15 K/min) under nitrogen over the temperature range 303–973 K. Thermograms showed clearly that there was only one main reaction region for the catalytic cracking of HDPE. In addition, while thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) data were shifted towards higher temperatures as the heating rate increased, they were shifted towards lower temperatures and polymer started to degrade at lower temperatures when the catalyst was used. Furthermore, the activation energy of the catalytic pyrolysis of HDPE was obtained using three isoconversional (model-free) models and two non-isoconversional (model-fitting) models. Moreover, a set of 900 input-output experimental TGA data has been predicted by a highly efficient developed artificial neural network (ANN) model. Results showed a very good agreement between the ANN-predicted and experimental values (R² > 0.999). Besides, A highly-efficient performance of the developed model has been reported for new input data as well. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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14 pages, 3398 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3D Printing of Polymer Waste for Improving People’s Awareness about Marine Litter

by Francesca Ferrari, Carola Esposito Corcione, Francesco Montagna and Alfonso Maffezzoli

Polymers 2020, 12(8), 1738; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12081738 - 4 Aug 2020

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 4942

Abstract

This work is aimed at proposing demonstrative actions devoted to show reprocessing and recyclability of PET originating from bottles collected from the seaside, in order to increase the consumer awareness on the importance of recycling plastics. To this purpose, collected bottles were washed, [...] Read more.

This work is aimed at proposing demonstrative actions devoted to show reprocessing and recyclability of PET originating from bottles collected from the seaside, in order to increase the consumer awareness on the importance of recycling plastics. To this purpose, collected bottles were washed, cut, grinded, extruded in the form of a thin wire adopting different cooling rates, which leads to a modulation of the crystallinity content. Once having optimized the processing parameters, the extruded wire was used to produce 3D printed samples through the fused deposition modelling (FDM). The changes in the crystalline structure due to the different processing conditions were assessed by DSC and XRD analyses, while rheological tests were performed in order to evaluate any modification in the viscosity of PET after repeated processing cycles. The reduction in thermal stability was confirmed by TGA analysis, which showed a progressive decrease in the degradation temperature as processing cycles increased. Finally, tensile tests highlighted the difference in the mechanical response due to the predominance of the crystalline or amorphous phase in the tested sample. In particular, a good mechanical behavior was found for the 3D-printed samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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14 pages, 2400 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Interactions among Polymeric Components of Automobile Shredder Residue on the Pyrolysis Temperature and Characterization of Pyrolytic Products

by Bin Yang and Ming Chen

Polymers 2020, 12(8), 1682; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12081682 - 28 Jul 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2777

Abstract

Pyrolysis and gasification have gradually become the main means to dispose of automobile shredder residue (ASR), since these methods can reduce the volume and quality of landfill with lower cost and energy recovery can be conducted simultaneously. As the ASR pyrolysis process is [...] Read more.

Pyrolysis and gasification have gradually become the main means to dispose of automobile shredder residue (ASR), since these methods can reduce the volume and quality of landfill with lower cost and energy recovery can be conducted simultaneously. As the ASR pyrolysis process is integrated, the results of pyrolysis reactions of organic components and the interaction among polymeric components can be clarified by co-pyrolysis thermogravimetric experiments. The results show that the decomposition mechanisms of textiles and foam are markedly changed by plastic in the co-pyrolysis process, but the effect is not large for rubber and leather. This effect is mainly reflected in the pyrolysis temperature and pyrolysis rate. The pyrolytic trend and conversion curve shape of the studied ASR can be predicted by the main polymeric components with a parallel superposition model. The pyrolytic product yields and characterizations of gaseous products were analyzed in laboratory-scale non-isothermal pyrolysis experiments at finished temperatures of 500 °C, 600 °C, and 700 °C. The results prove that the yields of pyrolytic gas products are determined by the thermal decomposition of organic substances in the ASR and final temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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23 pages, 11006 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Degradation Behavior of Polypropylene during Reprocessing and Its Biocomposites: Thermal and Oxidative Degradation Kinetics

by Elnaz Esmizadeh, Costas Tzoganakis and Tizazu H. Mekonnen

Polymers 2020, 12(8), 1627; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12081627 - 22 Jul 2020

Cited by 76 | Viewed by 8087

Abstract

Non-isothermal thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was employed to investigate the degradation of polypropylene (PP) during simulated product manufacturing in a secondary process and wood–plastic composites. Multiple batch mixing cycles were carried out to mimic the actual recycling. Kissinger–Akahira–Sunose (KAS), Ozawa–Flynn–Wall (OFW), Friedman, Kissinger and [...] Read more.

Non-isothermal thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was employed to investigate the degradation of polypropylene (PP) during simulated product manufacturing in a secondary process and wood–plastic composites. Multiple batch mixing cycles were carried out to mimic the actual recycling. Kissinger–Akahira–Sunose (KAS), Ozawa–Flynn–Wall (OFW), Friedman, Kissinger and Augis models were employed to calculate the apparent activation energy (E_a). Experimental investigation using TGA indicated that the thermograms of PP recyclates shifted to lower temperatures, revealing the presence of an accelerated degradation process induced by the formation of radicals during chain scission. Reprocessing for five cycles led to roughly a 35% reduction in ultimate mixing torque, and a more than 400% increase in the melt flow rate of PP. E_a increased with the extent of degradation (α), and the dependency intensified with the reprocessing cycles. In biocomposites, despite the detectable degradation steps of wood and PP in thermal degradation, a partial coincidence of degradation was observed under air. Deconvolution was employed to separate the overlapped cellulose and PP peaks. Under nitrogen, OFW estimations for the deconvoluted PP exposed an upward shift of E_a at the whole range of α due to the high thermal absorbance of the wood chars. Under air, the E_a of deconvoluted PP showed an irregular rise in the initial steps, which could be related to the high volume of evolved volatiles from the wood reducing the oxygen diffusion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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16 pages, 3403 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Immobilization of β-CD on a Hyper-Crosslinked Polymer for the Enhanced Removal of Amines from Aqueous Solutions

by Zujin Yang, Guifang Wu, Qiuru Li, Hongxia Ai, Xingdong Yao and Hongbing Ji

Polymers 2020, 12(7), 1620; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12071620 - 21 Jul 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3235

Abstract

In this paper, we adopted a simple and efficient strategy to prepare a β-cyclodextrin (β-CD)-modified hyper-crosslinked polymer (CDM-HCP). The structures and physicochemical properties of the as-synthesized polymer were also evaluated. It was applied to the removal of anilines from aqueous [...] Read more.

In this paper, we adopted a simple and efficient strategy to prepare a β-cyclodextrin (β-CD)-modified hyper-crosslinked polymer (CDM-HCP). The structures and physicochemical properties of the as-synthesized polymer were also evaluated. It was applied to the removal of anilines from aqueous solutions. The introduction of β-CD into the hyper-crosslinked polymer significantly enhanced adsorption properties for the removal of various amines. The adsorption kinetics agreed with the pseudo-second-order mode very well. The adsorption isotherm data of p-methylaniline (p-MA) and p-aminobenzoic acid (p-ABC) were in agreement with the Langmuir isotherm, whereas aniline and p-chloroaniline (p-CA) were fitted best with the Freundlich model. The maximum adsorption capacities (q_max) determined by adsorption isotherms were 148.97 mg/g for aniline, 198.45 mg/g for p-MA, 293.71 mg/g for p-CA, and 622.91 mg/g for p-ABC, respectively. It had higher adsorption capacities than those of some commercial polymeric resins, such as XAD-4, PA66, and AB-8. The interaction mechanism was investigated by FTIR, XPS, and the ONIOM2 method. A CDM-HCP can be regenerated efficiently and used repeatedly, indicating its potential technological applications in removing organic pollutants from actual industrial effluents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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14 pages, 1767 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Supercritical CO₂ Extraction as a Method for Plastic Waste Decontamination

by Ayah Alassali, Noor Aboud, Kerstin Kuchta, Philip Jaeger and Ahmad Zeinolebadi

Polymers 2020, 12(6), 1347; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12061347 - 15 Jun 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7509

Abstract

Due to the lack of advanced methods to clean plastic waste from organic contaminants, this study aimed at evaluating supercritical extraction as a decontamination method. Oil-adhesive high-density polyethylene (HD-PE) oil containers were subjected to supercritical extraction using supercritical carbon dioxide. The extraction was [...] Read more.

Due to the lack of advanced methods to clean plastic waste from organic contaminants, this study aimed at evaluating supercritical extraction as a decontamination method. Oil-adhesive high-density polyethylene (HD-PE) oil containers were subjected to supercritical extraction using supercritical carbon dioxide. The extraction was conducted at 300 bar, applying various temperatures (i.e., 70, 80 and 90 °C). The study assessed the impact of temperature on the decontamination efficiency. The variation in the samples’ quality was first analyzed using near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. An analysis of the content of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was followed. Samples treated at 70 and 80 °C showed higher extraction efficiencies, in spite of the lower extraction temperatures. The NIR analysis showed that the plastic specimens did not experience degradation by the supercritical decontamination method. Moreover, the NIR spectra of the extracted oil showed the presence of a wide range of compounds, some of which are hazardous. This has been confirmed by a GC-MS analysis of the extracted oil. Based on the provided assessment, the quality of the decontaminated HD-PE plastic samples—from a contamination point of view—is enhanced in comparison to untreated samples. The level of PAHs contamination decreased to be within the allowed limits defined by the REACH regulation, and also met the specifications of the German Product Safety Committee. This study proved the effectiveness of the supercritical extraction using CO₂ in extracting organic contaminants from plastics, while maintaining their quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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Review

Jump to: Research

13 pages, 1396 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recycling of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composite Polymers—Review—Part 1: Volume of Production, Recycling Technologies, Legislative Aspects

by Andrzej K. Bledzki, Holger Seidlitz, Krzysztof Goracy, Magdalena Urbaniak and Janina J. Rösch

Polymers 2021, 13(2), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020300 - 19 Jan 2021

Cited by 53 | Viewed by 6619

Abstract

The paper presents the current volume of international production and global markets of carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites, also regarding the potential development trends. Examples were provided on how to effectively recycle carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites. Legally binding legislation in the EU [...] Read more.

The paper presents the current volume of international production and global markets of carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites, also regarding the potential development trends. Examples were provided on how to effectively recycle carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites. Legally binding legislation in the EU on polymer composite recycling was given. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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25 pages, 2002 KiB

Open AccessReview

Eco-Sustainability of the Textile Production: Waste Recovery and Current Recycling in the Composites World

by Antonella Patti, Gianluca Cicala and Domenico Acierno

Polymers 2021, 13(1), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13010134 - 30 Dec 2020

Cited by 113 | Viewed by 21598

Abstract

This work aimed to review the recent scientific research, focused on the application of recycled fibers, taken from textile waste, in the field of composite materials to fulfill the eco-sustainability requirements of textile manufacturing, and promote actions for a circular economy. The yarns [...] Read more.

This work aimed to review the recent scientific research, focused on the application of recycled fibers, taken from textile waste, in the field of composite materials to fulfill the eco-sustainability requirements of textile manufacturing, and promote actions for a circular economy. The yarns and fabric production represent one of the most polluting processes of the industrial world. The harmful environmental impact of the textile process has been described by reporting the different treatments involving the raw material and the filament fabrication, and concerning the uses of insecticides, fertilizers, and many other chemicals for improving the quality of the final products. In addition, solid textile waste constituted a further additional issue for the environmental sustainability of fabric production. Various strategies have been discussed and in part already adopted by many companies to recover waste fibers and prevent them from ending up in landfills. The alternatives of fiber recycling for composite realization have been presented by reporting several recent studies involving the uses of recycled fibers from the textile waste embedded in different matrices: thermoplastic polymer, thermosetting resins, natural constituents, and concrete in light of specific applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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10 pages, 3626 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recycling of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composite Polymers—Review—Part 2: Recovery and Application of Recycled Carbon Fibers

by Andrzej K. Bledzki, Holger Seidlitz, Jonas Krenz, Krzysztof Goracy, Magdalena Urbaniak and Janina J. Rösch

Polymers 2020, 12(12), 3003; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12123003 - 16 Dec 2020

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 8406

Abstract

The paper presents some examples of new technological solutions for the recovery and re-use of recycled carbon fiber in automotive and railway industries, as well as in aviation and wind turbine constructions. The new technologies of fiber recovery that are described can enable [...] Read more.

The paper presents some examples of new technological solutions for the recovery and re-use of recycled carbon fiber in automotive and railway industries, as well as in aviation and wind turbine constructions. The new technologies of fiber recovery that are described can enable the mass-scale use of recycled carbon fiber in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling: Degradation, Processing, Applications)

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