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Cantilever-Based Sensors

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2020) | Viewed by 49553

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Bruno Tiribilli

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Guest Editor

ISC-CNR, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
Interests: optoelectronic systems for satellite attitude sensors; atomic force microscopy; optical microscopy; scanning probe techniques; cantilever-based mass sensors; cantilever-based micro-viscosimeter

Dr. Paolo Paoletti

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Guest Editor

School of Engineering, University of Liverpool, L69 3GH Liverpool, UK
Interests: nanosensing; control, nonlinear dynamics; biomechanics; robotics

Dr. Joao Mouro

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Guest Editor

INESC Microsistems and Nanotechnologies, 1000-029 Lisboa, Portugal
Interests: microtechnologies; MEMS; microfabrication; sensor development and modelling and nonlinear dynamics

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues

Microcantilevers are typically rectangular-shaped bars, approximately 100–200 μm long, 20–40 μm wide, and 0.5–1 μm thick, and made of silicon or silicon nitride. Their mechanical response is often described as a very soft spring. The static deformation of a cantilever allows detection of the smallest forces with unprecedented sensitivity, whereas the resonance frequency of its dynamic response can be used to measure extremely small masses or fluid properties. Cantilever-based sensors have received considerable interest in the last few decades, as they offer an unparalleled opportunity for the development of highly sensitive biophysical and chemical sensors, employed in a very wide spectrum of applications. These sensors have been widely utilized in electronics, automotive and aerospace systems, biophysics, environmental monitoring, and medical diagnosis sectors, among others. Their working principle is often based on the interaction between a micrometric cantilever and its surrounding medium, where the mechanical device responds to changes in some environmental property, such as, for example, temperature, pressure, flow, density, viscosity, or the presence of some analytes of interest. The current trend to miniaturize is driven by the need of minimizing the footprint and power-consumption of these devices, but also by the need of probing smaller volumes and time scales, allowing measurements of physical phenomena in real-time at the micro- and nanoscale.

We would like to invite both review articles providing an up-to-date and critical overview of the state-of-the-art and original research articles that contain theoretical, analytical, and/or experimental investigations covering all aspects of cantilever-based sensors.

Dr. Bruno Tiribilli
Dr. Paolo Paoletti
Dr. Joao Mouro
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

Biomarker detection
Nanomechanics
Micro-cantilever detection methods
MEMS
Cantilever-array sensors
Molecular recognition
Photothermal cantilever deflection
Simulation and analysis of cantilevers
Rheology
Novel instruments and/or measurement approaches
Mass sensor
Micro-viscosimeter
Gas sensors

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 3322 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards a Fully Automated Scanning Probe Microscope for Biomedical Applications

by Witold K. Szeremeta, Robert L. Harniman, Charlotte R. Bermingham and Massimo Antognozzi

Sensors 2021, 21(9), 3027; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21093027 - 26 Apr 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2597

Abstract

The increase in capabilities of Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) has resulted in a parallel increase in complexity that limits the use of this technique outside of specialised research laboratories. SPM automation could substantially expand its application domain, improve reproducibility and increase throughput. Here, we present a bottom-up design in which the combination of positioning stages, orientation, and detection of the probe produces an SPM design compatible with full automation. The resulting probe microscope achieves sub-femtonewton force sensitivity whilst preserving low mechanical drift (

2.0 \pm 0.2

nm/min in-plane and

1.0 \pm 0.1

nm/min vertically). The additional integration of total internal reflection microscopy, and the straightforward operations in liquid, make this instrument configuration particularly attractive to future biomedical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever-Based Sensors)

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19 pages, 7936 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nano-Scale Stiffness and Collagen Fibril Deterioration: Probing the Cornea Following Enzymatic Degradation Using Peakforce-QNM AFM

by Ahmed Kazaili, Hayder Abdul-Amir Al-Hindy, Jillian Madine and Riaz Akhtar

Sensors 2021, 21(5), 1629; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21051629 - 26 Feb 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2774

Abstract

Under physiological conditions, the cornea is exposed to various enzymes, some of them have digestive actions, such as amylase and collagenase that may change the ultrastructure (collagen morphology) and sequentially change the mechanical response of the cornea and distort vision, such as in keratoconus. This study investigates the ultrastructure and nanomechanical properties of porcine cornea following incubation with α-amylase and collagenase. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was used to capture nanoscale topographical details of stromal collagen fibrils (diameter and D-periodicity) and calculate their elastic modulus. Samples were incubated with varying concentrations of α-amylase and collagenase (crude and purified). Dimethylmethylene blue (DMMB) assay was utilised to detect depleted glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) following incubation with amylase. Collagen fibril diameters were decreased following incubation with amylase, but not D-periodicity. Elastic modulus was gradually decreased with enzyme concentration in amylase-treated samples. Elastic modulus, diameter, and D-periodicity were greatly reduced in collagenase-treated samples. The effect of crude collagenase on corneal samples was more pronounced than purified collagenase. Amylase was found to deplete GAGs from the samples. This enzymatic treatment may help in answering some questions related to keratoconus, and possibly be used to build an empirical animal model of keratoconic corneas with different progression levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever-Based Sensors)

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13 pages, 3060 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Investigating the Trackability of Silicon Microprobes in High-Speed Surface Measurements

by Min Xu, Zhi Li, Michael Fahrbach, Erwin Peiner and Uwe Brand

Sensors 2021, 21(5), 1557; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21051557 - 24 Feb 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1571

Abstract

High-speed tactile roughness measurements set high demand on the trackability of the stylus probe. Because of the features of low mass, low probing force, and high signal linearity, the piezoresistive silicon microprobe is a hopeful candidate for high-speed roughness measurements. This paper investigates the trackability of these microprobes through building a theoretical dynamic model, measuring their resonant response, and performing tip-flight experiments on surfaces with sharp variations. Two microprobes are investigated and compared: one with an integrated silicon tip and one with a diamond tip glued to the end of the cantilever. The result indicates that the microprobe with the silicon tip has high trackability for measurements up to traverse speeds of 10 mm/s, while the resonant response of the microprobe with diamond tip needs to be improved for the application in high-speed topography measurements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever-Based Sensors)

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11 pages, 1592 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Experimental Parameters on Cell–Cell Force Spectroscopy Signature

by Reinier Oropesa-Nuñez, Andrea Mescola, Massimo Vassalli and Claudio Canale

Sensors 2021, 21(4), 1069; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041069 - 4 Feb 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3042

Abstract

Atomic force microscopy is an extremely versatile technique, featuring atomic-scale imaging resolution, and also offering the possibility to probe interaction forces down to few pN. Recently, this technique has been specialized to study the interaction between single living cells, one on the substrate, and a second being adhered on the cantilever. Cell–cell force spectroscopy offers a unique tool to investigate in fine detail intra-cellular interactions, and it holds great promise to elucidate elusive phenomena in physiology and pathology. Here we present a systematic study of the effect of the main measurement parameters on cell–cell curves, showing the importance of controlling the experimental conditions. Moreover, a simple theoretical interpretation is proposed, based on the number of contacts formed between the two interacting cells. The results show that single cell–cell force spectroscopy experiments carry a wealth of information that can be exploited to understand the inner dynamics of the interaction of living cells at the molecular level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever-Based Sensors)

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16 pages, 1849 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging in Turbid Liquids: A Promising Tool in Nanomedicine

by Michael Leitner, Hannah Seferovic, Sarah Stainer, Boris Buchroithner, Christian H. Schwalb, Alexander Deutschinger and Andreas Ebner

Sensors 2020, 20(13), 3715; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20133715 - 2 Jul 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3845

Abstract

Tracking of biological and physiological processes on the nanoscale is a central part of the growing field of nanomedicine. Although atomic force microscopy (AFM) is one of the most appropriate techniques in this area, investigations in non-transparent fluids such as human blood are not possible with conventional AFMs due to limitations caused by the optical readout. Here, we show a promising approach based on self-sensing cantilevers (SSC) as a replacement for optical readout in biological AFM imaging. Piezo-resistors, in the form of a Wheatstone bridge, are embedded into the cantilever, whereas two of them are placed at the bending edge. This enables the deflection of the cantilever to be precisely recorded by measuring the changes in resistance. Furthermore, the conventional acoustic or magnetic vibration excitation in intermittent contact mode can be replaced by a thermal excitation using a heating loop. We show further developments of existing approaches enabling stable measurements in turbid liquids. Different readout and excitation methods are compared under various environmental conditions, ranging from dry state to human blood. To demonstrate the applicability of our laser-free bio-AFM for nanomedical research, we have selected the hemostatic process of blood coagulation as well as ultra-flat red blood cells in different turbid fluids. Furthermore, the effects on noise and scanning speed of different media are compared. The technical realization is shown (1) on a conventional optical beam deflection (OBD)-based AFM, where we replaced the optical part by a new SSC nose cone, and (2) on an all-electric AFM, which we adapted for measurements in turbid liquids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever-Based Sensors)

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20 pages, 7403 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sampling and Mass Detection of a Countable Number of Microparticles Using on-Cantilever Imprinting

by Wilson Ombati Nyang’au, Andi Setiono, Angelika Schmidt, Harald Bosse and Erwin Peiner

Sensors 2020, 20(9), 2508; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20092508 - 28 Apr 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3056

Abstract

Liquid-borne particles sampling and cantilever-based mass detection are widely applied in many industrial and scientific fields e.g., in the detection of physical, chemical, and biological particles, and disease diagnostics, etc. Microscopic analysis of particles-adsorbed cantilever-samples can provide a good basis for measurement comparison. However, when a particles-laden droplet on a solid surface is vaporized, a cluster-ring deposit is often yielded which makes particles counting difficult or impractical. Nevertheless, in this study, we present an approach, i.e., on-cantilever particles imprinting, which effectively defies such odds to sample and deposit countable single particles on a sensing surface. Initially, we designed and fabricated a triangular microcantilever sensor whose mass m₀, total beam-length L, and clamped-end beam-width w are equivalent to that of a rectangular/normal cantilever but with a higher resonant frequency (271 kHz), enhanced sensitivity (0.13 Hz/pg), and quality factor (~3000). To imprint particles on these cantilever sensors, various calibrated stainless steel dispensing tips were utilized to pioneer this study by dipping and retracting each tip from a small particle-laden droplet (resting on a hydrophobic n-type silicon substrate), followed by tip-sensor-contact (at a target point on the sensing area) to detach the solution (from the tip) and adsorb the particles, and ultimately determine the particles mass concentration. Upon imprinting/adsorbing the particles on the sensor, resonant frequency response measurements were made to determine the mass (or number of particles). A minimum detectable mass of ~0.05 pg was demonstrated. To further validate and compare such results, cantilever samples (containing adsorbed particles) were imaged by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to determine the number of particles through counting (from which, the lowest count of about 11 magnetic polystyrene particles was obtained). The practicality of particle counting was essentially due to monolayer particle arrangement on the sensing surface. Moreover, in this work, the main measurement process influences are also explicitly examined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever-Based Sensors)

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17 pages, 2330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contact Resonance Atomic Force Microscopy Using Long, Massive Tips

by Tony Jaquez-Moreno, Matteo Aureli and Ryan C. Tung

Sensors 2019, 19(22), 4990; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19224990 - 15 Nov 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2684

Abstract

In this work, we present a new theoretical model for use in contact resonance atomic force microscopy. This model incorporates the effects of a long, massive sensing tip and is especially useful to interpret operation in the so-called trolling mode. The model is based on traditional Euler–Bernoulli beam theory, whereby the effect of the tip as well as of the sample in contact, modeled as an elastic substrate, are captured by appropriate boundary conditions. A novel interpretation of the flexural and torsional modes of vibration of the cantilever, when not in contact with the sample, is used to estimate the inertia properties of the long, massive tip. Using this information, sample elastic properties are then estimated from the in-contact resonance frequencies of the system. The predictive capability of the proposed model is verified via finite element analysis. Different combinations of cantilever geometry, tip geometry, and sample stiffness are investigated. The model’s accurate predictive ranges are discussed and shown to outperform those of other popular models currently used in contact resonance atomic force microscopy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever-Based Sensors)

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10 pages, 1976 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fully Coupled Model for Frequency Response Simulation of Miniaturized Cantilever-Based Photoacoustic Gas Sensors

by Sheng Zhou

Sensors 2019, 19(21), 4772; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19214772 - 2 Nov 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2442

Abstract

To support the development of miniaturized photoacoustic gas sensors, a fully coupled finite element model for a frequency response simulation of cantilever-based photoacoustic gas sensors is introduced in this paper. The model covers the whole photoacoustic process from radiation absorption to pressure transducer vibration, and considers viscous damping loss. After validation with experimental data, the model was further applied to evaluate the possibility of further optimization and miniaturization of a previously reported sensor design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever-Based Sensors)

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Review

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38 pages, 7737 KiB

Open AccessReview

Scanning and Actuation Techniques for Cantilever-Based Fiber Optic Endoscopic Scanners—A Review

by Mandeep Kaur, Pierre M. Lane and Carlo Menon

Sensors 2021, 21(1), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21010251 - 2 Jan 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7087

Abstract

Endoscopes are used routinely in modern medicine for in-vivo imaging of luminal organs. Technical advances in the micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) and optical fields have enabled the further miniaturization of endoscopes, resulting in the ability to image previously inaccessible small-caliber luminal organs, enabling the early detection of lesions and other abnormalities in these tissues. The development of scanning fiber endoscopes supports the fabrication of small cantilever-based imaging devices without compromising the image resolution. The size of an endoscope is highly dependent on the actuation and scanning method used to illuminate the target image area. Different actuation methods used in the design of small-sized cantilever-based endoscopes are reviewed in this paper along with their working principles, advantages and disadvantages, generated scanning patterns, and applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever-Based Sensors)

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35 pages, 4159 KiB

Open AccessReview

Microcantilever: Dynamical Response for Mass Sensing and Fluid Characterization

by João Mouro, Rui Pinto, Paolo Paoletti and Bruno Tiribilli

Sensors 2021, 21(1), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21010115 - 27 Dec 2020

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 5851

Abstract

A microcantilever is a suspended micro-scale beam structure supported at one end which can bend and/or vibrate when subjected to a load. Microcantilevers are one of the most fundamental miniaturized devices used in microelectromechanical systems and are ubiquitous in sensing, imaging, time reference, and biological/biomedical applications. They are typically built using micro and nanofabrication techniques derived from the microelectronics industry and can involve microelectronics-related materials, polymeric materials, and biological materials. This work presents a comprehensive review of the rich dynamical response of a microcantilever and how it has been used for measuring the mass and rheological properties of Newtonian/non-Newtonian fluids in real time, in ever-decreasing space and time scales, and with unprecedented resolution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever-Based Sensors)

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39 pages, 12154 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review: Cantilever-Based Sensors for High Speed Atomic Force Microscopy

by Bernard Ouma Alunda and Yong Joong Lee

Sensors 2020, 20(17), 4784; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20174784 - 25 Aug 2020

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 13506

Abstract

This review critically summarizes the recent advances of the microcantilever-based force sensors for atomic force microscope (AFM) applications. They are one the most common mechanical spring–mass systems and are extremely sensitive to changes in the resonant frequency, thus finding numerous applications especially for molecular sensing. Specifically, we comment on the latest progress in research on the deflection detection systems, fabrication, coating and functionalization of the microcantilevers and their application as bio- and chemical sensors. A trend on the recent breakthroughs on the study of biological samples using high-speed atomic force microscope is also reported in this review. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever-Based Sensors)

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