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Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for Rapid Trace Analysis of Pollutants and Contaminants

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Chemical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 December 2022) | Viewed by 29594

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Matjaž Finšgar

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
Interests: surface chemistry; electrochemical sensors; corrosion; EIS
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Tinkara Mastnak

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Guest Editor

Laboratory for Analytical Chemistry and Industrial Analysis, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Maribor, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
Interests: analytical chemistry; biochemistry; colorimetry; sensor and biosensor development; optical chemical sensors; electrochemical sensors; nanosensors; chemometrics, multifunctional coatings; surface analysis of materials

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Trace analysis of pollutants and contaminants is usually performed using spectroscopic techniques. On the other hand, electrochemical techniques offer an outstanding alternative to these methods in terms of low limit of detection (LOD), high sensitivity, and speed.

The development of the dropping mercury electrode (DME) spiked the interest into the scientific area of anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV). However, alternative electrode materials are currently being sought since the mercury waste produced is highly detrimental to human health. Recently, modified mercury-free electrodes and nanomaterial-modified electrodes have been shown as environmentally friendlier electrode materials with tremendous analytical potential.

This Special Issue focuses on trace analysis of pollutants and contaminants such as heavy metals, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals by using novel mercury-free electrode materials. Characterization of mercury-free electrode materials by using ASV techniques in combination with square-wave (SW) and differential pulse (DP) excitation stripping signals will be of high interest although other electrochemical techniques not involving a preconcentration step are equally welcome. Articles presenting working electrode characterization by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and surface analytical techniques (e.g. AFM, XPS, and ToF‑SIMS) will also be considered for publication. The combination of electrochemical analysis with real sample preparation methodology is highly encouraged, nevertheless, review articles providing information on state of the art developments of the proposed scientific fields will likewise be accepted.

Prof. Dr. Matjaž Finšgar
Dr. Tinkara Mastnak
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Electrochemical sensors and biosensors
Mercury-free electrode materials
Trace analysis of pollutants and contaminants
Heavy metals
Pharmaceutical compounds
Pesticides
Electroanalytical techniques
Chemically modified nanomaterial-based electrodes
Nanomaterial-based electrodes
Electrode characterization
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
Surface analysis
Real sample preparation methodology

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

15 pages, 847 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrochemical System for Field Control of Hg²⁺ Concentration in Wastewater Samples

by Anda-Gabriela Tenea, Cristina Dinu, George-Octavian Buica and Gabriela-Geanina Vasile

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1084; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031084 - 17 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1367

Abstract

The paper presents the validation of an electrochemical procedure for on-site Hg²⁺ ions determination in wastewater samples using a modified carbon screen-printed electrode (SPE) with a complexing polymeric film based on poly(2,2′-(ethane-1,2-diylbis((2-(azulen-2-ylamino)-2-oxoethyl)azanediyl))diacetic acid) (polyL). Using metal ions accumulation in an open circuit followed by anodic stripping voltammetry, the SPE-polyL electrode presents a linear range in the range of 20 µg/L to 150 µg/L, with a limit of detection (LOD) = 6 µg/L, limit of quantification (LOQ) = 20 µg/L, and an average measurement uncertainty of 26% of mercury ions. The results obtained in situ and in the laboratory using the SPE-polyL modified electrode were compared with those obtained by the atomic absorption spectrometry coupled with the cold vapor generation standardized method, with the average values indicating excellent recovery yields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for Rapid Trace Analysis of Pollutants and Contaminants)

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16 pages, 7656 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrocatalytic Platform Based on Silver-Doped Sugar Apple-like Cupric Oxide Embedded Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes for Nanomolar Detection of Acetaminophen (APAP)

by Deepak Balram, Kuang-Yow Lian and Neethu Sebastian

Sensors 2023, 23(1), 379; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010379 - 29 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1390

Abstract

Economical and nanomolar-level determination of the analgesic drug, acetaminophen (APAP), is reported in this work. A novel ternary nanocomposite based on silver-doped sugar apple-like cupric oxide (CuO)-decorated amine-functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (fCNTs) was sonochemically prepared. CuO nanoparticles were synthesized based on the ascorbic acid-mediated low-temperature method, and sidewall functionalization of CNTs was carried out. Important characterizations of the synthesized materials were analyzed using SEM, TEM, HAADF-STEM, elemental mapping, EDX, lattice fringes, SAED pattern, XRD, EIS, UV-Vis, micro-Raman spectroscopy, and FTIR. It was noted the sonochemically prepared nanocomposite diligently fabricated on screen-printed carbon electrode showcased outstanding electrocatalytic performance towards APAP determination. The APAP sensor exhibited ultra-low limit of detection of 4 nM, wide linear concentration ranges of 0.02–3.77 and 3.77–90.02 μM, and high sensitivity of 30.45 μA μM⁻¹ cm⁻². Moreover, further evaluation of the sensor’s performance based on electrochemical experiments showcased outstanding selectivity, stability, reproducibility, and repeatability. Further, excellent practical feasibility of the proposed APAP sensor was affirmed with excellent recovery larger than 96.86% and a maximum RSD of 3.67%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for Rapid Trace Analysis of Pollutants and Contaminants)

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18 pages, 4176 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Toxic Lead Ionic Sensor Using Carboxyl-Functionalized MWCNTs in Real Water Sample Analyses

by Hadi M. Marwani, Jahir Ahmed and Mohammed M. Rahman

Sensors 2022, 22(22), 8976; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22228976 - 20 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1513

Abstract

Functional multiwall carbon nanotubes (f-MWCNTs) are of significant interest due to their dispersion ability in the aqueous phase and potential application in environmental, nanotechnology, and biological fields. Herein, we functionalized MWCNTs by a simple acid treatment under ultra-sonification, which represented a terminal or side-functional improvement for the fabrication of a toxic lead ion sensor. The f-MWCNTs were characterized in detail by XRD, Raman, XPS, BET, UV/vis, FTIR, and FESEM-coupled XEDS techniques. The analytical performance of the f-MWCNTs was studied for the selective detection of toxic lead ions by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The selectivity of the f-MWCNTs was evaluated using several metal ions such as Cd²⁺, Co²⁺, Cr³⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe³⁺, Ni²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Zn²⁺ ions. Lastly, the newly designed ionic sensor was successfully employed to selectively detect lead ions in several environmental water samples with reasonable results. This approach introduced a new technique for the selective detection of heavy metal ions using functional carbon nanotubes with ICP-OES for the safety of environmental and healthcare fields on a broad scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for Rapid Trace Analysis of Pollutants and Contaminants)

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14 pages, 2676 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Diffused Mini-Sniffing Sensor for Monitoring SO₂ Emissions Compliance of Navigating Ships

by Mengtao Deng, Shitao Peng, Xin Xie, Zhi Jiang, Jianbo Hu and Zhaoyu Qi

Sensors 2022, 22(14), 5198; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22145198 - 12 Jul 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1748

Abstract

The ship exhaust sniffing unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) system can be applied to monitor vessel emissions in emission control areas (ECAs) to improve the efficiency of maritime law enforcement and reduce ship pollution. To solve the problems of large size, heavy weight and high cost of ship exhaust sniffing sensors, in this paper, a unique diffused mini-sniffing sensor was designed, which provides a low-cost, lightweight, and highly adaptable solution for ship exhaust sniffing UAV. To verify the measurement accuracy of the system, a large number of on-site tests were performed based in the mouth of the Yangtze River, and some cases of violation of the fuel sulfur content (FSC) were verified and punished. Maritime law enforcement officers boarded the ship to take oil samples from eight suspected ships and sent them to the laboratory for testing. The results showed that the FSCs of the eight ships in chemical inspection were all greater than the regulatory limit 0.5% (m/m) of the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The system enables authorities to monitor emissions using rotary UAVs equipped with diffused mini-sniffing sensors to measure the FSC of navigating ships, which couple hardware and operational software with a dedicated lab service to produce highly reliable measurement results. The system offers an effective tool for screening vessel compliance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for Rapid Trace Analysis of Pollutants and Contaminants)

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15 pages, 3158 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Electroanalytical Solution for the Determination of Pb²⁺ in Progressive Hair Dyes Using the Cork–Graphite Sensor

by Thalita Medeiros Barros, Danyelle Medeiros de Araújo, Alana Tamires Lemos de Melo, Carlos Alberto Martínez-Huitle, Marco Vocciante, Sergio Ferro and Elisama Vieira dos Santos

Sensors 2022, 22(4), 1466; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22041466 - 14 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1987

Abstract

Lead is one of the most toxic metals for living organisms: once absorbed by soft tissues, it is capable of triggering various pathologies, subsequently bioaccumulating in the bones. In consideration of this, its detection and quantification in products for human consumption and use is of great interest, especially if the procedure can be carried out in an easy, reproducible and economical way. This work presents the results of the electroanalytical determination of lead in three different commercial products used as progressive hair dyes. Analyses were performed by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse stripping voltammetry (DPSV) using a composite cork–graphite sensor in 0.5M H₂SO₄ solution or 0.1M acetate buffer (pH 4.5), in the presence and absence of hair dye samples. The H₂SO₄ solution gave better results in terms of analyte sensitivity than the acetate buffer electrolyte. In both cases, well-defined signals for lead were obtained by DPSV analyses, enabling the calibration curve and figures of merit to be determined. The limits of detection (LOD) were found to be approximately 1.06 µM and 1.26 µM in H₂SO₄ and acetate buffer, respectively. The DPSV standard addition method was successfully applied to quantify the lead in hair dye samples, yielding values below 0.45% in Pb. All three analyzed samples were shown to comply with the limit set by the Brazilian Health Regulatory Agency, i.e., 0.6% lead in this type of product. The comparison of the electroanalytical results with those obtained by the reference method, based on the use of inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP–OES), confirmed that the electroanalytical detection approach is potentially applicable as a strategy for quality control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for Rapid Trace Analysis of Pollutants and Contaminants)

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15 pages, 3630 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Pre-Anodized Graphite Pencil Electrode Coated with a Poly(Thionine) Film for Simultaneous Sensing of 3-Nitrophenol and 4-Nitrophenol in Environmental Water Samples

by Vijaya Gopalan Sree, Jung Inn Sohn and Hyunsik Im

Sensors 2022, 22(3), 1151; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22031151 - 02 Feb 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2088

Abstract

A very simple, as well as sensitive and selective, sensing protocol was developed on a pre-anodized graphite pencil electrode surface coated using poly(thionine) (APGE/PTH). The poly(thionine) coated graphite pencil was then used for simultaneous sensing of 3-nitrophenol (3-NP) and 4-nitrophenol (4-NP). The poly(thionine) coated electrode exhibited an enhanced electrocatalytic property towards nitrophenol (3-NP and 4-NP) reduction. Redox peak potential and current of both nitrophenols were found well resolved and their simultaneous analysis was studied. Under optimized experimental conditions, APGE/PTH showed a long linear concentration range from 20 to 230 nM and 15 nM to 280 nM with a calculated limit of detection (LOD) of 4.5 and 4 nM and a sensitivity of 22.45 µA/nM and 27.12 µA/nM for 3-NP and 4-NP, respectively. Real sample analysis using the prepared sensor was tested with different environmental water samples and the sensors exhibited excellent recovery results in the range from 98.16 to 103.43%. Finally, the sensor exposed an promising selectivity, stability, and reproducibility towards sensing of 3-NP and 4-NP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for Rapid Trace Analysis of Pollutants and Contaminants)

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15 pages, 2957 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Electroanalytical Detection of Zn Ions by a Novel Schiff Base Ligand-SPCE Sensor

by Viviana Bressi, Zahra Akbari, Morteza Montazerozohori, Angelo Ferlazzo, Daniela Iannazzo, Claudia Espro and Giovanni Neri

Sensors 2022, 22(3), 900; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22030900 - 25 Jan 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2316

Abstract

A novel bidentate Schiff base (L) is here proposed for the detection of Zn ions in water. The structure of the synthesized Schiff base L was characterized by FT-IR, ¹H NMR and ¹³C NMR. Optical characteristics were addressed by UV-Visible spectroscopy and Photoluminescence (PL) measurements. PL demonstrated that L displays a “turn-off” type fluorescence quenching in the presence of Zn²⁺ ion in aqueous solution, indicating its ability to preferentially coordinate this ion. Based on these findings, an L-M (where M is a suitable membrane) modified screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) was developed to evaluate the electrochemical behavior of the Schiff base (L) with the final objective of undertaking the electroanalytical determination of Zn ions in water. Using various electrochemical techniques, the modified L-M/SPCE sensor demonstrates high sensitivity and selectivity to Zn ions over some common interferents ions, such as Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, Ni⁺⁺ and Cd⁺⁺. The potentiometric response of the L-M/SPCE sensor to Zn ions was found to be linear over a relatively wide concentration range from 1 μM to 100 mM. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for Rapid Trace Analysis of Pollutants and Contaminants)

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12 pages, 3197 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication of AuNPs/MWCNTS/Chitosan Nanocomposite for the Electrochemical Aptasensing of Cadmium in Water

by Selma Rabai, Ahlem Teniou, Gaëlle Catanante, Messaoud Benounis, Jean-Louis Marty and Amina Rhouati

Sensors 2022, 22(1), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010105 - 24 Dec 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3608

Abstract

Cadmium (Cd²⁺) is one of the most toxic heavy metals causing serious health problems; thus, designing accurate analytical methods for monitoring such pollutants is highly urgent. Herein, we report a label-free electrochemical aptasensor for cadmium detection in water. For this, a nanocomposite combining the advantages of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and chitosan (Cs) was constructed and used as immobilization support for the cadmium aptamer. First, the surface of a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) was modified with CNTs-CS. Then, AuNPs were deposited on CNTs-CS/GCE using chrono-amperometry. Finally, the immobilization of the amino-modified Cd-aptamer was achieved via glutaraldehyde cross-linking. The different synthesis steps of the AuNPs/CNTs/CS nano assembly were characterized by cyclic voltammetry (CV). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was employed for cadmium determination. The proposed biosensor exhibited excellent performances for cadmium detection at a low applied potential (−0.5 V) with a high sensitivity (1.2 KΩ·M⁻¹), a detection limit of 0.02 pM and a wide linear range (10⁻¹³–10⁻⁴ M). Moreover, the aptasensor showed a good selectivity against the interfering ions: Pb²⁺; Hg²⁺ and Zn²⁺. Our electrochemical biosensor provides a simple and sensitive approach for Cd²⁺ detection in aqueous solutions, with promising applications in the monitoring of trace amounts of heavy metals in real samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for Rapid Trace Analysis of Pollutants and Contaminants)

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18 pages, 32059 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Academically Produced Air Pollution Sensors for Personal Exposure Assessment: The Canarin Project

by Boris Dessimond, Isabella Annesi-Maesano, Jean-Louis Pepin, Salim Srairi and Giovanni Pau

Sensors 2021, 21(5), 1876; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21051876 - 08 Mar 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3265

Abstract

The World Health Organization has estimated that air pollution is a major threat to health, causing approximately nine million premature deaths every year. Each individual has, over their lifetime, a unique exposure to air pollution through their habits, working and living conditions. Medical research requires dedicated tools to assess and understand individual exposure to air pollution in view of investigating its health effects. This paper presents portable sensors produced by the Canarin Project that provides accessible, real time personal exposure data to particulate matter. Our primary results demonstrate the use of portable sensors for the assessment of personal exposure to the different micro-environments attended by individuals, and for inspecting the short-term effects of air pollution through the example of sleep apnea. These findings underscore the necessity of obtaining contextual data in determining environmental exposure and give perspectives for the future of air pollution sensors dedicated to medical research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for Rapid Trace Analysis of Pollutants and Contaminants)

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14 pages, 5179 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intertwined Carbon Nanotubes and Ag Nanowires Constructed by Simple Solution Blending as Sensitive and Stable Chloramphenicol Sensors

by Yangguang Zhu, Xiufen Li, Yuting Xu, Lidong Wu, Aimin Yu, Guosong Lai, Qiuping Wei, Hai Chi, Nan Jiang, Li Fu, Chen Ye and Cheng-Te Lin

Sensors 2021, 21(4), 1220; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041220 - 09 Feb 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2743

Abstract

Chloramphenicol (CAP) is a harmful compound associated with human hematopathy and neuritis, which was widely used as a broad-spectrum antibacterial agent in agriculture and aquaculture. Therefore, it is significant to detect CAP in aquatic environments. In this work, carbon nanotubes/silver nanowires (CNTs/AgNWs) composite electrodes were fabricated as the CAP sensor. Distinguished from in situ growing or chemical bonding noble metal nanomaterials on carbon, this CNTs/AgNWs composite was formed by simple solution blending. It was demonstrated that CNTs and AgNWs both contributed to the redox reaction of CAP in dynamics, and AgNWs was beneficial in thermodynamics as well. The proposed electrochemical sensor displayed a low detection limit of up to 0.08 μM and broad linear range of 0.1–100 μM for CAP. In addition, the CNTs/AgNWs electrodes exhibited good performance characteristics of repeatability and reproducibility, and proved suitable for CAP analysis in real water samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for Rapid Trace Analysis of Pollutants and Contaminants)

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22 pages, 4110 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Factorial Design and Simplex Optimization to Improve Analytical Performance of In Situ Film Electrodes

by Matjaž Finšgar and Klara Jezernik

Sensors 2020, 20(14), 3921; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20143921 - 14 Jul 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2080

Abstract

This work presents a systematic approach to determining the significance of the individual factors affecting the analytical performance of in-situ film electrode (FE) for the determination of Zn(II), Cd(II), and Pb(II). Analytical parameters were considered simultaneously, where the lowest limit of quantification, the widest linear concentration range, and the highest sensitivity, accuracy, and precision of the method evidenced a better analytical method. Significance was evaluated by means of a fractional factorial (experimental) design using five factors, i.e., the mass concentrations of Bi(III), Sn(II), and Sb(III), to design the in situ FE, the accumulation potential, and the accumulation time. Next, a simplex optimization procedure was employed to determine the optimum conditions for these factors. Such optimization of the in situ FE showed significant improvement in analytical performance compared to the in situ FEs in the initial experiments and compared to pure in situ FEs (bismuth-film, tin-film, and antimony-film electrodes). Moreover, using the optimized in situ FE electrode, a possible interference effect was checked for different species and the applicability of the electrode was demonstrated for a real tap water sample. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for Rapid Trace Analysis of Pollutants and Contaminants)

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Review

Jump to: Research

37 pages, 8672 KiB

Open AccessReview

Modern Electrochemical Biosensing Based on Nucleic Acids and Carbon Nanomaterials

by Anna Szymczyk, Robert Ziółkowski and Elżbieta Malinowska

Sensors 2023, 23(6), 3230; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23063230 - 17 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2229

Abstract

To meet the requirements of novel therapies, effective treatments should be supported by diagnostic tools characterized by appropriate analytical and working parameters. These are, in particular, fast and reliable responses that are proportional to analyte concentration, with low detection limits, high selectivity, cost-efficient construction, and portability, allowing for the development of point-of-care devices. Biosensors using nucleic acids as receptors has turned out to be an effective approach for meeting the abovementioned requirements. Careful design of the receptor layers will allow them to obtain DNA biosensors that are dedicated to almost any analyte, including ions, low and high molecular weight compounds, nucleic acids, proteins, and even whole cells. The impulse for the application of carbon nanomaterials in electrochemical DNA biosensors is rooted in the possibility to further influence their analytical parameters and adjust them to the chosen analysis. Such nanomaterials enable the lowering of the detection limit, the extension of the biosensor linear response, or the increase in selectivity. This is possible thanks to their high conductivity, large surface-to-area ratio, ease of chemical modification, and introduction of other nanomaterials, such as nanoparticles, into the carbon structures. This review discusses the recent advances on the design and application of carbon nanomaterials in electrochemical DNA biosensors that are dedicated especially to modern medical diagnostics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for Rapid Trace Analysis of Pollutants and Contaminants)

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13 pages, 1127 KiB

Open AccessReview

Electrochemical Sensors for Controlling Oxygen Content and Corrosion Processes in Lead-Bismuth Eutectic Coolant—State of the Art

by Sergey N. Orlov, Nikita A. Bogachev, Andrey S. Mereshchenko, Alexandr A. Zmitrodan and Mikhail Yu. Skripkin

Sensors 2023, 23(2), 812; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23020812 - 10 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1656

Abstract

Controlling oxygen content in the primary circuit of nuclear reactors is one of the key tasks needed to ensure the safe operation of nuclear power plants where lead-bismuth eutectic alloy (LBE) is used as a coolant. If the oxygen concentration is low, active corrosion of structural materials takes place; upon increase in oxygen content, slag accumulates due to the formation of lead oxide. The generally accepted method of measuring the oxygen content in LBE is currently potentiometry. The sensors for measuring oxygen activity (electrochemical oxygen sensors) are galvanic cells with two electrodes (lead-bismuth coolant serves as working electrode) separated by a solid electrolyte. Control of corrosion and slag accumulation processes in circuits exploring LBE as a coolant is also based on data obtained by electrochemical oxygen sensors. The disadvantages of this approach are the low efficiency and low sensitivity of control. The alternative, Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) Sensors, are proposed for Real-Time Corrosion Monitoring in LBE system. Currently their applicability in static LBE at temperatures up to 600 °C is shown. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for Rapid Trace Analysis of Pollutants and Contaminants)

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