Marine Plasmalogens: A Gift from the Sea with Benefits for Age-Associated Diseases
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Structures and Roles of Plasmalogens
2.1. Structures and Distribution
2.2. Biological Role
3. Alterations of Plasmalogens in Aging and Associated Diseases
3.1. Aging
3.2. Alzheimer’s Disease
3.3. Parkinson’s Disease
3.4. Arteriosclerosis
3.5. Cancer
4. Food Functions of Plasmalogens
4.1. Resources
4.2. Alteration during Storage and Cooking
4.3. Absorption and Metabolism
4.4. Impact on Neurodegeneration
Resource and Composition | Animal | Administration | Effects | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ascidian viscera EtnGpl composition: 80.4 mol% PlsEtn Fatty composition: 22.0 mol% DHA, 37.1 mol% EPA, 7.6 mol% ARA | Fourth-generation male Wister rats that ate a fish-oil-deficient diet 12 weeks old Aβ40 (4.9–5.5 nmol) and AlCl3 (0.5 μg) infusion into the cerebral ventricle and learning ability check for 12 weeks | Oral gavage of 200 mg (260 μmol) EtnGpl/kg/day for 6 wks from 24 weeks old | Long-term memory Plasma levels of 18:0/22:6-, 18:0:20:5-, and 18:0:20:4-PlsEtn | [156] |
Egg yolk EtnGpl composition: 4.0 mol% PlsEtn Fatty composition: 2.7 mol% DHA, 0.1 mol% EPA, 13.7 mol% ARA | Long-term memory⬌; short-term memory⬌ Plasma, RBC, liver, and cerebral cortex levels of PlsEtn species⬌ | |||
Sea cucumber PlsEtn composition: 93.4% PlsEtn Fatty acid composition: 45.6% EPA | Male SD rats 6 weeks old Aβ42 (conc.: unclear) infusion into the cerebral ventricle | Oral gavage of 150 mg EtnGpl/kg/day for 26 days | Memory In hippocampus: Aβ accumulation In cortex: oxidative resistance | [154] |
Sea cucumber (PtdEtn enzymatically prepared from PtdCho) PtdEtn composition: 92.6% PtdEtn Fatty acid composition: 49.3% EPA | Memory In hippocampus: Aβ accumulation In cortex: oxidative resistance | |||
Scallop Pls composition: unclear Fatty acid composition: 28.7% DHA, 26.1% EPA, 10.2% ARA | Male C57/6J mice 6 months old i.p. LPS (250 μg/kg/day) for 7 days at 9 months old | Drinking water containing 0.1 μg/mL for 3 months | In cortex: PKCδ-positive microglial cells | [153] |
Male triple-transgenic mouse model of AD (PS1, tau, and APP) 3 months old | Drinking water containing 1 μg/mL for 15 months | In cortex: PKCδ-positive microglial cells | ||
Sea cucumber Pls composition: unclear | Male APP/PS1 mice 20 weeks old | A diet containing 0.1% PlsEtn for 16 weeks | Long-term memory In hippocampus: Aβ generation In cortex: Aβ accumulation In brain unclear part: oxidative resistance In liver: lipid accumulation | [151] |
Sea cucumber PlsEtn composition: 93.4% PlsEtn Fatty acid composition: 11.4% DHA, 45.6% EPA, 10.1% ARA | Male SAMP8 mice 6 months old | A high-fat diet containing 1% PlsEtn for 2 months | Memory In hippocampus: Aβ generation In white matter: oxidative resistance In brain unclear part: tau hyperphosphorylation | [166] |
Ascidian Pls composition: unclear | Female C57BL/6J mice 16 months old | Oral gavage of 200 mg Pls/kg/day for 2 months | Memory In hippocampus: synaptic conditions (number, form, genesis) | [150] |
Chicken breast muscle Pls composition: 96.5% PlsEtn, 2.5% PlsCho Fatty acid composition: 23.8% DHA, 0.9% EPA, 21.9% ARA | Male C57BL/6 mice 8 weeks old | Diet containing 0.01% Pls for 6 weeks | Memory In hippocampus: Pls level | [68] |
Chicken breast muscle Pls composition: 96.5% PlsEtn, 2.5% PlsCho Fatty acid composition of PlsEtn: 23.8% DHA, 0.9% EPA, 21.9% ARA | Drinking water containing 0.01% Pls (w/v) for 6 weeks | Long-term memory⬌; short-term memory | ||
Scallop Pls composition: 96.5% PlsEtn, 2.5% PlsCho Fatty acid composition of PlsEtn: 37.1% DHA, 27.8% EPA, 24.9% ARA | Long-term memory | |||
Chicken breast muscle Pls composition: unclear | Male C57/6J mice 7 months old i.p. LPS (250 μg/kg/day) for 7 days at 10 months old | Drinking water containing 0.1 or 10 μg Pls/mL for 3 months | Memory In cortex and hippocampus: Aβ accumulation | [152] |
Chicken breast muscle Pls composition: 47.6% PlsEtn (18.6% DHA, 24.9% ARA), 49.3% PlsCho (2.3% DHA, 17.2% ARA) | Male C57/6J mice 10 months old i.p. LPS (250 μg/kg/day) for 7 days | i.p. 20 mg Pls/kg/day for 7 days along with LPS treatment | In PFC and hippocampus: Aβ accumulation | [155] |
4.5. Impact on Arteriosclerosis
4.6. Impact on Colon Impairments
5. Plasmalogens as Healthcare Materials
5.1. Materials for Functional Membrane of Biosensors
5.2. Materials for Light-Activated Liposomes
5.3. Materials for Nanoparticles with Endosomal Escape Capabilities
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Sample Availability
References
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Species | Organs and Tissues | PlsEtn (% EtnGpl) | PlsEtn (% Total PL) | PlsCho (% ChoGpl) | PlsCho (% Total PL) | Plasmalogen (% Total PL) | Plasmalogen (% Wet Weight) | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Human | ||||||||
Whole brain | 58 | 20, 22 | 1 | 0.8, 0.9 | 22 | [17,18] | ||
Brain prefrontal cortex | 49 | 0.7 | [19] | |||||
Brain temporal cortex | 46 | 0.5 | ||||||
Brain gray matter | 49 | 19 | 0.1 | 19 | 0.4, 0.7 | [20,21] | ||
Brain gray matter—frontal cortex | 57 | 20 | 0.7 | [10,22] | ||||
Brain gray matter—parietal cortex | 58 | 19 | 0.7 | |||||
Brain gray matter—temporal cortex | 56 | |||||||
Brain gray matter—cerebellum | 63 | |||||||
Brain white matter | 83, 86 | 33 | 2.6, 0.4 | 0.1 | 37 | 1.1, 1.8 | [19,20,21] | |
Brain white matter—frontal cortex | 84 | 29 | 2 | [10,22] | ||||
Brain white matter—parietal cortex | 81 | 36 | 2.7 | |||||
Brain white matter—temporal cortex | 83 | |||||||
Brain white matter—cerebellum | 78 | |||||||
Myelin | 91 | 36 | 0.5 | 0.1 | 43 | 7.0 | [20] | |
Heart | 53, 51 | 17, 14, 15 | 26, 36 | 14, 11, 15 | 32, 29 | [17,18,23] | ||
Skeletal muscle | 48, 63 | 14, 15 | 19, 16 | 6.5, 9.7 | 0.2 | [17,18,22,23] | ||
Cultured artery endothelial cells | 48 | 13 | 1.9 | 0.9 | [24] | |||
Cultured vein endothelial cells | 34 | 8.7 | 0.2 | 0.1 | ||||
Kidney | 46 | 14 | 5 | 4.7 | [17,18] | |||
Liver | 8 | 4.7 | 3 | 3.4 | ||||
Colon | 36 | 11 | 9 | 3.9 | 19, 15 | 0.1, 0.1 | [22,25] | |
Lens | 70 | 14 | [26] | |||||
Neutrophils | 68 | 3.6 | [27] | |||||
Eosinophils | 72 | 4 | [28] | |||||
Red blood cells | 58, 48, 46 | 17,14, 9 | 8 | 2.8 | 20, 14, 9 | [29,30,31] | ||
Plasma | 53 | 2.5 | 5.5 | 5.2 | 7.7 | [32] | ||
Serum | 5.9 | 4.5 | 10 | [33] | ||||
HDL | 55 | 6.4, 5 | 4.7 | 4.5, 4 | 11, 10 | [32,34] | ||
LDL | 60 | 5.9, 4 | 4.4 | 4.2, 4 | 10, 10 | |||
Platelet | 54 | 0.8 | [35] | |||||
Cultured macrophage | 62 | 8.8 | [36] | |||||
Spermatozoa | 9 | 3 | 12 | [37] | ||||
Rat | ||||||||
Whole brain | 66 | 1.7 | 1 | [19,22] | ||||
Cortex | 22 | [38] | ||||||
Cerebellum | 26 | |||||||
Hippocampus | 23 | |||||||
Brainstem | 32 | |||||||
Midbrain | 24 | |||||||
Brain synaptic vesicles | 16 | [39] | ||||||
Heart | 28 | 9.8 | 5.7 | 2.4 | 12 | 0.2 | [22,40] | |
Cultured heart sacrolemma | 43 | 19 | [41] | |||||
Lung | 42 | 1.6 | 16 | 0.3 | [22,42] | |||
Kidney | 20 | 2.3 | 12 | 0.3 | ||||
Liver | 3.3 | 0.4 | 3.4 | 0.07 | ||||
Red blood cells | 65 | 16 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 16 | [13] | ||
Plasma | 51, 36 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.8 | [13,43] | ||
HDL | 46 | 2.4 | [43] | |||||
LDL | 32 | 1.9 | ||||||
VLDL | 14 | 1.6 | ||||||
Mature spermatozoa | 42 | 52 | 38 | [44] | ||||
Mouse | ||||||||
Whole brain | 47 | 1.2 | [19] | |||||
Cortex | 46 | [10,22] | ||||||
Cerebellum | 53 | |||||||
Heart | 24 | 8.2 | 62 | 31 | 39 | [45] | ||
Dog | ||||||||
Heart sarcolemma | 73 | 16 | 57 | 37 | 53 | [46] | ||
Rabbit | ||||||||
Whole brain | 26 | 1.3 | [22] | |||||
Heart | 32 | 0.6 | ||||||
Lung | 14 | 0.3 | ||||||
Kidney | 14 | 0.3 | ||||||
Liver | 2 | 0.06 | ||||||
Macrophage | 61 | 13 | 6 | 2 | 15 | [47] | ||
Guinea pig | ||||||||
Whole brain | 0.9 | [21] |
Species | Organs and Tissues | Predominant Plasmalogen Species | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|
Human | |||
Brain gray matter—frontal cortex | 16:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:1/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/22:4-PlsEtn | [10] | |
Brain gray matter—parietal cortex | 16:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:1/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/22:4-PlsEtn | ||
Brain gray matter—temporal cortex | 16:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:1/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/22:4-PlsEtn | ||
Brain gray matter—cerebellum | 16:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:1/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/22:4-PlsEtn | ||
Brain white matter—frontal cortex | 16:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:1/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:1-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/22:4-PlsEtn | ||
Brain white matter—parietal cortex | 16:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:1/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:1-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/22:4-PlsEtn | ||
Brain white matter—temporal cortex | 16:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:1/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:1-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/22:4-PlsEtn | ||
Brain white matter—cerebellum | 16:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:1/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:1-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/22:4-PlsEtn | ||
Cultured artery endothelial cells | 16:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn | [24] | |
Cultured vein endothelial cells | 16:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:6-PlsEtn | ||
Neutrophils | 16:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:1/18:2-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn, 20:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 20:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 20:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 22:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 22:1/18:1-PlsEtn, 22:1/18:2-PlsEtn, 22:1/20:4-PlsEtn, 24:1/18:1-PlsEtn, 24:1/18:2-PlsEtn, 24:1/20:4-PlsEtn | [48] | |
Lymphocytes | 16:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:6-PlsEtn | [49] | |
Serum | 16:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:6-PlsEtn | [50] | |
HDL | 16:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/22:6-PlsEtn 16:0/18:1-PlsCho, 16:0/18:2-PlsCho, 16:0/20:4-PlsCho, 16:0/22:6-PlsCho, 18:0/18:2-PlsCho, 18:0/20:4-PlsCho, 18:1/20:4-PlsCho | [34] | |
LDL | 16:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/22:6-PlsEtn 16:0/18:1-PlsCho, 16:0/18:2-PlsCho, 16:0/20:4-PlsCho, 16:0/22:6-PlsCho, 18:0/18:2-PlsCho, 18:0/20:4-PlsCho | ||
VLDL | 16:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/22:6-PlsEtn 16:0/18:1-PlsCho, 16:0/18:2-PlsCho, 16:0/20:4-PlsCho, 16:0/22:6-PlsCho, 18:0/18:2-PlsCho, 18:0/20:4-PlsCho, 18:1/20:4-PlsCho | ||
Platelet | 16:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn 16:0/20:4-PlsCho, 18:0/20:4-PlsCho, 18:1/20:4-PlsCho | [35] | |
Rat | |||
Cardiac sarcolemma | 16:0/18:0-PlsEtn, 16:0/18:3-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:0-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:2/16:0-PlsEtn, 18:2/18:0-PlsEtn 16:0/18:0-PlsCho, 16:0/18:2-PlsCho, 16:0/18:3-PlsCho, 18:0/18:0-PlsCho, 18:0/20:4-PlsCho, 18:0/22:6-PlsCho, 18:1/22:6-PlsCho | [51] | |
Mouse | |||
Cerebral cortex | 16:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:6-PlsEtn, 18:1/16:0-PlsEtn, 18:1/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/22:6-PlsEtn | [52] | |
Hippocampus | 18:1/20:3-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/22:5-PlsEtn, 18:1/22:4-PlsEtn 16:0/18:1-PlsCho, 16:0/20:5-PlsCho, 16:0/22:5-PlsCho, 18:0/16:0-PlsCho | [53] | |
Macrophage cell line RAW264.7 | 16:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:3-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:3-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/16:0-PlsEtn, 18:1/18:1-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:3-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn | [54] | |
Rabbit | |||
Proximal tubules | 16:0/18:1-PlsEtn, 16:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/18:2-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/18:2-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn | [55] | |
Dog | |||
Heart sarcolemma | 16:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:0/20:4-PlsEtn, 18:1/20:4-PlsEtn 16:0/18:1-PlsCho, 16:0/18:2-PlsCho, 16:0/20:4-PlsCho, 16:0/18:2-PlsCho, 18:1/18:1-PlsCho | [46] |
Resource and Dose | Subject | Effects | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|
Scallop Plasmalogen composition: unclear 1.0 mg/day for 24 weeks | Mild AD and MCI Placebo: n = 140, age 76.5, MMSE 24.2 1.0 mg: n = 145, age 76.4, MMSE 24.0 | Not affected in whole In mild AD (MMSE 20–23) Female: WMS-R improvement compared with the placebo Younger than 78: WMS-R improvement compared with the placebo | [11] |
Scallop Plasmalogen composition: unclear 1.0 mg/day for 24 weeks | MCI Placebo: n = 88, age 75.9, MMSE 25.6 1.0 mg: n = 90, age 75.8, MMSE 25.6 | Improvement in total MMSE compared with before the intake Improvement in domain “orientation to place” compared with the placebo and before the intake Maintenance of domain “orientation to time” compared with before the intake | [143] |
Scallop Plasmalogen composition: unclear 0.5 or 1.0 mg/day for 12 weeks | Moderate-to-severe AD 0.5 mg: n = 68, age 78.5, MMSE 13.0 1.0 mg: n = 74, age 76.6, MMSE 13.4 | Improvement in total MMSE compared with before the intake Increase in plasma and RBC levels of PlsEtn compared with before the intake Increase in plasma PlsEtn levels in the 0.5 mg group compared with the 1.0 mg group Correlation between changes in MMSE and RBC PlsEtn | [144] |
Scallop Ether lipid composition: 52% PlsEtn, 2% PlsCho, 4% PakEtn, 42% PakCho 1.0 mg/day for 24 weeks | PD PD: n = 10, age 67.8, MMSE 28.6 | Improvement in total PDQ-39 compared with immediately before trial Deterioration of total PDQ-39 at 4 weeks later of the final administration Increase in plasma and RBC levels of PlsEtn compared with levels immediately before trial Decrease in RBC PlsEtn levels after 4 weeks without administration | [142] |
Ascidian Plasmalogen composition: unclear 1.0 mg/day for 12 weeks | Healthy subjects with mild forgetfulness Placebo: n = 24, age 46.4, MMSE 29.0 1.0 mg: n = 25, age 45.6, MMSE 28.5 | Improvement in Cognitrax domain “composite memory” at 8 and 12 weeks compared with the placebo | [145] |
Ascidian Plasmalogen composition: 100% PlsEtn, trace PlsCho 0.5 or 1.0 mg/day for 12 weeks | MCI Placebo: n = 44, age 51.4, MMSE 25.3 0.5 mg: n = 45, age 51.5, MMSE 25.4 1.0 mg: n = 49, age 52.7, MMSE 25.7 | Improvement in CogEvo domain “working memory performance” in the 1.0 mg group compared with the placebo In subjects older than 49 Improvement in total MMSE and “working memory performance” in the 1.0 mg group compared with the placebo | [12] |
Chicken breast Plasmalogen composition: unclear 1.0, 10, or 100 mg/day for 12 weeks | Healthy subjects with mild forgetfulness Placebo: n = 17, age 58.7 1.0 mg: n = 15, age 57.2 10 mg: n = 16, age 59.9 100 mg: n = 15, age 59.0 | Improvement in total RBANS in the 1.0 and 100 mg groups compared with before the intake Improvement in RBANS domain “attention” in all the groups, including the placebo, compared with before the intake Improvement in some Cognitrax domains in the plasmalogen groups compared with before the intake | [146] |
Chicken breast Plasmalogen composition: unclear 0.5 or 1.0 mg/day for 12 weeks | Healthy subjects with mild forgetfulness age 50 to 79, MSSE > 26 Placebo: n = 24 0.5 mg: n = 25 1.0 mg: n = 25 | Improvement in some CogEvo domains in all the groups, including the placebo, compared with before the intake In subjects older than 59 Improvement in some CogEvo domains in the 1.0 mg group compared with before the intake Improvement in CogEvo domain “verbal memory” in the 1.0 mg group compared with the placebo Improvement in CogEvo domain “psychomotor speed” in the 0.5 mg group compared with the placebo | [147] |
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Yamashita, S.; Miyazawa, T.; Higuchi, O.; Kinoshita, M.; Miyazawa, T. Marine Plasmalogens: A Gift from the Sea with Benefits for Age-Associated Diseases. Molecules 2023, 28, 6328. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28176328
Yamashita S, Miyazawa T, Higuchi O, Kinoshita M, Miyazawa T. Marine Plasmalogens: A Gift from the Sea with Benefits for Age-Associated Diseases. Molecules. 2023; 28(17):6328. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28176328
Chicago/Turabian StyleYamashita, Shinji, Taiki Miyazawa, Ohki Higuchi, Mikio Kinoshita, and Teruo Miyazawa. 2023. "Marine Plasmalogens: A Gift from the Sea with Benefits for Age-Associated Diseases" Molecules 28, no. 17: 6328. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28176328