Photosynthesis: Genetic Strategies Adopted to Gain Higher Efficiency
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Advances in Genetic Engineering to Optimize Photosynthesis
2.1. Modification of Electron Transport Chain
2.2. Modification of Calvin-Benson Cycle
2.3. Modification of Photorespiratory Process
2.4. Modification of Non-Photochemical Quenching
2.5. Synergistic Enhancements in Photosynthesis: Multigene Modifications’ Impact
3. Post-Translational Modification of Photosynthetic Machinery
4. Improvement in Photosynthesis under Abiotic-Stress Conditions
4.1. Under High and Low Light Intensity
4.2. Under High Temperatures (Heat Stress)
4.3. Under Low Temperature (Cold Stress)
4.4. Under Drought Stress
4.5. Under Salt Stress (Salinity)
5. Future Perspectives
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Gene | Function and Impact | Pathway |
---|---|---|
Target: Thylakoid membrane | ||
PsbS | Regulates non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) to enhance photoprotection, preventing damage from excess light during photosynthesis. | Non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) |
PGR5/PGRL1 | Regulates cyclic electron flow (CEF) to protect photosystem I (PSI), enhancing the plant’s resilience to fluctuating light conditions. | Cyclic electron flow |
KEA3 | Regulates the proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane, optimizing ATP synthesis and overall photosynthetic efficiency. | Proton gradient regulation |
VDE (violaxanthin de-epoxidase) | Converts violaxanthin to zeaxanthin in NPQ, playing a critical role in dissipating excess light energy as heat. | Non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) |
ZEP (zeaxanthin epoxidase) | Converts zeaxanthin back to violaxanthin, regulating NPQ and maintaining balance in the light-harvesting process. | Non-photochemical quenching |
Reisek FeS protein | Mediates electron flow between PSII and PSI, playing a pivotal role in the overall efficiency of the electron transport chain. | Electron transport chain |
NADH dehydrogenase (NDH) | Involved in cyclic electron flow around PSI, contributing to ATP production and enhancing the efficiency of photosynthesis. | Cyclic electron flow |
Target: Chloroplast | ||
SBPase (sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase) | Enhances the regeneration of ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) in the Calvin-Benson cycle, facilitating increased carbon fixation. | Calvin-Benson cycle |
CAO (chlorophyllide a oxygenase) | Modulates chlorophyll b levels to optimize light capture, improving overall photosynthetic efficiency by enhancing light harvesting. | Light-harvesting complex |
FBPA (fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase) | Improves photosynthesis and growth under elevated CO2 conditions by facilitating the conversion of sugars in the Calvin cycle. | Calvin-Benson cycle |
GAPDH (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase) | Increases the production of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) in the Calvin-Benson cycle, enhancing carbohydrate synthesis and energy production. | Calvin-Benson cycle |
PRK (phosphoribulokinase) | Crucial for the regeneration of RuBP; overexpression can significantly improve photosynthetic rates and biomass accumulation. | Calvin-Benson cycle |
RCA (RubisCO activase) | Reactivates RubisCO, ensuring efficient carbon fixation by maintaining the enzyme’s activity under varying conditions. | Calvin-Benson cycle |
Ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase (FNR) | Reduces NADP+ to NADPH, a critical step for providing the reducing power necessary for the Calvin cycle. | Electron transport chain |
Target: Mitochondria | ||
Glycine decarboxylase (GDC) | Involved in the photorespiratory pathway, mitigating the effects of photorespiration and enhancing overall carbon efficiency. | Photorespiration |
H-protein | Enhances photorespiration by improving glycine cleavage system (GCS) efficiency, facilitating better nitrogen assimilation. | Photorespiration |
T-protein | Part of the GCS, crucial for facilitating the conversion of glycine during photorespiration, thereby affecting overall carbon balance. | Photorespiration |
Target: Nucleus | ||
GLK transcription factors | Enhances photosynthesis by regulating chloroplast development, promoting the formation of functional chloroplasts necessary for light capture. | Chloroplast development |
psbA | Involved in the de novo synthesis of the D1 protein, essential for the repair of photosystem II (PSII) under photoinhibition conditions. | Photoinhibition |
mEmBP1 | Enhances photosynthesis by regulating chloroplast development, similar to GLK, ensuring efficient light utilization. | Gene regulation |
HYR (higher yield regulation) | Acts as a master regulator for photosynthesis genes, coordinating responses to environmental signals and optimizing growth. | Gene regulation |
NRP1 (Negative Regulator of Photosynthesis 1) | Negatively regulates photosynthesis-related genes, providing a balance in the expression of photosynthesis-related pathways under stress. | Gene regulation |
Gene | Organism | Role/Function | References |
---|---|---|---|
Abiotic Stress: High Light Intensity | |||
GhDREB, CRF6 | Plants | Regulates the PSII system, chlorophyll content, and stress tolerance | [189] |
BZR1, WRKY | Plants | Affects genes linked to the chloroplast and cell wall | [189] |
HY5, bZIP-type TFs | Plants | Regulates CAB gene expression, enhancing stress tolerance | [201] |
HARDY (HRD) | Arabidopsis/rice | Lowers the transpiration rate and increases photosynthetic absorption | [203] |
ABR17 | Arabidopsis | Enhances seed germination rates and stress tolerance | [204] |
MAPKs | Eukaryotic cells | Enhances the photosynthetic rate by regulating chloroplast redox and gene expression | [208,209] |
Abiotic Stress: High Temperature | |||
RubisCO activase (RCA) | Rice | Activates RubisCO, improving thermal stability and photosynthetic capacity under heat stress | [238] |
Sedoheptulose 1,6-bisphosphatase (SBPase) | Rice | A key enzyme in the Calvin cycle; it enhances high-temperature stress resistance | [233] |
RAN1 | Rice | A member of the G-protein family; it enhances cold stress tolerance | [255] |
Abiotic Stress: Low Temperature | |||
CBF/DREB1 | Rice, Arabidopsis | Confers resistance to cold, drought, and salt stress by regulating the cold acclimation response | [256,257] |
SCOF-1 | Tobacco, Arabidopsis | A zinc finger protein; it increases resistance to low temperatures | [259] |
CSPs | Bacteria/Plants | Enhances cold, heat, and water-deficiency tolerance | [253,254] |
Plastidial α-3 fatty acid desaturase | Tobacco | Is involved in linolenic acid synthesis; it improves freezing tolerance | [251] |
Glycerol-3-phosphate acyl transferase | Plants | Changes fatty acid unsaturation; it enhances cold tolerance | [252] |
Abiotic Stress: Drought Stress | |||
DREB/CBF | Various species | Improves drought tolerance by regulating stress-responsive genes | [266] |
NAM, ATAF, CUC | Rice | Enhances drought and salinity resistance | [267] |
NPK1 | Maize | Kinase domain; it improves drought tolerance | [268] |
LOS5/ABA3 | Rice | A key enzyme in ABA biosynthesis; it enhances drought tolerance | [269] |
P5CS | Rice | A rate-limiting enzyme in proline biosynthesis; it improves drought tolerance | [270] |
MnSOD | Cotton | An antioxidant enzyme; it enhances drought tolerance | [271] |
Abiotic Stress: Salt Stress | |||
GST/GPX, APX, SOD, CAT | Various species | Antioxidant enzymes; they enhance salinity tolerance | [278] |
BALDH | Rice | Enhances the glycine betaine level and salt tolerance | [279] |
TIP (CsTIP2;1) | Citrus, Tobacco | Aquaporin; it enhances growth and photosynthetic capabilities under salt and drought stress | [280] |
Trehalose, CIPK, DREB TFs | Various species | Broad abiotic stress resistance | [282] |
AQP gene family | Plants | Supports water and solute transport and enhances salinity tolerance | [284] |
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Khan, N.; Choi, S.-H.; Lee, C.-H.; Qu, M.; Jeon, J.-S. Photosynthesis: Genetic Strategies Adopted to Gain Higher Efficiency. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25, 8933. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25168933
Khan N, Choi S-H, Lee C-H, Qu M, Jeon J-S. Photosynthesis: Genetic Strategies Adopted to Gain Higher Efficiency. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2024; 25(16):8933. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25168933
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhan, Naveed, Seok-Hyun Choi, Choon-Hwan Lee, Mingnan Qu, and Jong-Seong Jeon. 2024. "Photosynthesis: Genetic Strategies Adopted to Gain Higher Efficiency" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 25, no. 16: 8933. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25168933