Table 1.
Descriptive information for each biome and location across the latitudinal gradient. Biomes and numbers (Biome #) associated with them were established by Olson et al. [
36]. Area was collected from Olson et al. [
36] data; average AET, elevation, human index, precipitation, maximum and minimum temperature were gathered from rasters in ArcGIS. Latitude and longitude are the centroid for each biome. Biomes are listed from northern pole to southern pole. R = species richness, AET = actual evapotranspiration, Human = human index, Precip = precipitation, T
max = max temperature, T
min = Temperature minimum.
Table 1.
Descriptive information for each biome and location across the latitudinal gradient. Biomes and numbers (Biome #) associated with them were established by Olson et al. [
36]. Area was collected from Olson et al. [
36] data; average AET, elevation, human index, precipitation, maximum and minimum temperature were gathered from rasters in ArcGIS. Latitude and longitude are the centroid for each biome. Biomes are listed from northern pole to southern pole. R = species richness, AET = actual evapotranspiration, Human = human index, Precip = precipitation, T
max = max temperature, T
min = Temperature minimum.
| # | Nearctic Biomes | R | Area (km2) | AET (mm) | Elevation (m) | Human (0–1) | Precip (mm) | Tmax (°C) | Tmin (°C) | Latitude | Longitude |
---|
| 11 | Tundra | 87 | 271,663,882 | 3645.00 | 386.76 | 0.02 | 33.54 | 8.17 | 0.49 | 67.40466 | −110.99 |
Northern Hemisphere | 6 | Boreal Forests | 140 | 49,903,944 | 7152.00 | 398.45 | 0.04 | 65.43 | 17.16 | 5.47 | 57.80348 | −103.865 |
5 west | West Temperate Conifer Forests | 224 | 23,759,410 | 8321.00 | 1384.91 | 0.14 | 52.98 | 20.23 | 5.36 | 48.19165 | −119.473 |
4 west | Temperate Broadleaf & Mixed Forests | 78 | 14,883 | 8120 | 142.74267 | 0.63 | 31.96 | 25.54 | 10.05 | 44.86379 | −122.981 |
8 | Temperate Grasslands, Savannas & Shrublands | 245 | 4,734,502 | 9357.00 | 669.08 | 0.32 | 65.58 | 27.36 | 12.02 | 43.77383 | −102.673 |
4 east | Temperate Broadleaf & Mixed Forests | 189 | 25,307,930 | 10,211.83 | 279.43679 | 0.58 | 125.1 | 25.21 | 13.76 | 41.34244 | −82.5103 |
12 | Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands & Scrub | 157 | 423,811 | 5768.00 | 594.52 | 0.35 | 6.11 | 29.41 | 13.18 | 35.52935 | −119.397 |
5 east | East Temperate Conifer Forests | 151 | 9,064,846 | 13,177.00 | 45.65 | 0.33 | 181.51 | 30.78 | 19.79 | 32.20068 | −84.9705 |
13 | Deserts & Xeric Shrublands | 271 | 10,865,373 | 5418.00 | 1311.73 | 0.23 | 29.39 | 31.3 | 13.95 | 34.2914 | −109.93 |
2 | Tropical & Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests | 77 | 356,321 | 9062.00 | 402.36 | 0.22 | 99.67 | 36.78 | 20.97 | 28.12188 | −109.692 |
| 7 | Tropical & Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas & Shrublands | 152 | 2,334,935 | 12,462.00 | 12.34 | 0.34 | 146.93 | 32.04 | 22.6 | 29.03471 | −94.5135 |
| 3 | Tropical & Subtropical Coniferous Forests | 226 | 31,426,924 | 9549.00 | 1882.62 | 0.15 | 103.11 | 29.22 | 13.44 | 26.03234 | −105.109 |
| | Neotropic Biomes | | | | | | | | | | |
| 3 | Tropical & Subtropical Coniferous Forests | 326 | 12,001,989 | 10,777.72 | 1457.58 | 0.25 | 219.04 | 27.66 | 16.13 | 17.02859 | −94.3459 |
Equator | 13 north | North Deserts & Xeric Shrublands | 222 | 271,032 | 10,068.95 | 391.8 | 0.31 | 132.91 | 31.41 | 21.67 | 11.40241 | −72.2085 |
2 north | North Tropical & Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests | 388 | 2,847,807 | 883.96 | 510.29 | 0.28 | 165.03 | 32.11 | 20.61 | 13.39755 | −89.0349 |
7 north | North Tropical & Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas & Shrublands | 168 | 3,217,561 | 848.86 | 187.98 | 0.21 | 271.91 | 31.02 | 22.62 | 5.93031 | −66.2061 |
14 | Mangroves | 282 | 7,916,251 | 11,567.51 | 12.25 | 0.22 | 178.43 | 31.68 | 22.86 | 3.416023 | −64.7089 |
1 | Tropical & Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests | 862 | 119,022,002 | 9899.31 | 400.29 | 0.13 | 141.86 | 29.88 | 19.28 | −4.932322 | −63.0036 |
| 13 east | East Deserts & Xeric Shrublands | 155 | 2,925,280 | 5676.83 | 422.87 | 0.26 | 29.58 | 28.9 | 18.37 | −8.639252 | −39.8674 |
| 2 east | Southeast Tropical & Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests | 92 | 1,198,761 | 798.85 | 547.18 | 0.24 | 133.41 | 31.01 | 19.51 | −12.49221 | −43.2687 |
| 9 | Flooded Grasslands & Savannas | 163 | 2,274,986 | 7117.79 | 104.72 | 0.16 | 66.54 | 28.21 | 16.64 | −21.55915 | −57.5349 |
Southern Hemisphere | 10 | Montane Grasslands & Shrublands | 223 | 6,005,435 | 1293.01 | 3619.09 | 0.21 | 12.62 | 12.42 | −3.41 | −21.80844 | −69.0883 |
13 west | West Deserts & Xeric Shrublands | 98 | 289,116 | 819.98 | 1803.8 | 0.22 | 1.21 | 20.02 | 7.05 | −16.65466 | −73.0378 |
7 south | South Tropical & Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas & Shrublands | 375 | 62,827,392 | 730.84 | 382.57 | 0.21 | 170.99 | 31.16 | 19.58 | −20.16100 | −54.6077 |
2 west | Southwest Tropical & Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests | 175 | 1,031,940 | 1011.18 | 857.86 | 0.17 | 167.21 | 29.65 | 19.05 | −16.83261 | −61.6999 |
12 | Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands & Scrub | 55 | 148,381 | 1380.01 | 981.99 | 0.27 | 61.29 | 14.49 | 4.83 | −31.15619 | −71.0188 |
8 | Temperate Grasslands, Savannas & Shrublands | 164 | 6,659,747 | 1560.23 | 395.4 | 0.23 | 33.69 | 13.53 | 2.64 | −39.72482 | −39.7248 |
4 | Temperate Broadleaf & Mixed Forests | 67 | 37,615,866 | 1225.11 | 646.3 | 0.13 | 163.97 | 7.08 | 0.22 | −45.35145 | −72.0871 |
Table 2.
Correspondence analyses (CAs) were on passerine presence throughout biomes in the western hemisphere. Retained axes from CAs were determined using the elbow technique. Principal Coordinates of Neighboring Matrices (PCNMs) were conducted on x and y centroids for passerine distributions for each biome to examine coarse to fine spatial patterns. Redundancy analyses were conducted on detrended species presence data and PCNMs. We determined which PCNMs to retrain using forward selection with adjusted R2 threshold to account for the number of explanatory variables. Biome number: 1 = Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests, 2 = Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests, 3 = Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests, 4 = Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests, 5 = Temperate Conifer Forests, 6 = Boreal Forests, 7 = Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 8 = Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 9 = Flooded Grasslands and Savannas, 10 = Montane Grasslands and Shrublands, 11 = Tundra, 12 = Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub, 13 = Deserts and Xeric Shrublands, 14 = Mangroves. For CAs, % = total percent variation explained by components. For PCNMs, % variation represents adjusted variation calculated during RDA with forward selection.
Table 2.
Correspondence analyses (CAs) were on passerine presence throughout biomes in the western hemisphere. Retained axes from CAs were determined using the elbow technique. Principal Coordinates of Neighboring Matrices (PCNMs) were conducted on x and y centroids for passerine distributions for each biome to examine coarse to fine spatial patterns. Redundancy analyses were conducted on detrended species presence data and PCNMs. We determined which PCNMs to retrain using forward selection with adjusted R2 threshold to account for the number of explanatory variables. Biome number: 1 = Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests, 2 = Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests, 3 = Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests, 4 = Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests, 5 = Temperate Conifer Forests, 6 = Boreal Forests, 7 = Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 8 = Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 9 = Flooded Grasslands and Savannas, 10 = Montane Grasslands and Shrublands, 11 = Tundra, 12 = Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub, 13 = Deserts and Xeric Shrublands, 14 = Mangroves. For CAs, % = total percent variation explained by components. For PCNMs, % variation represents adjusted variation calculated during RDA with forward selection.
# | Distribution | PCNM |
---|
| Axes | % | Axes | % |
---|
11 | 4 | 22.24 | 0 | 0.00 |
6 | 5 | 17.58 | 0 | 0.00 |
5 west | 6 | 18.05 | 0 | 0.00 |
4 west | 2 | 20.56 | 0 | 0.00 |
8 | 8 | 22.13 | 22 | 26.09 |
4 east | 4 | 13.24 | 3 | 18.78 |
12 | 9 | 25.59 | 2 | 15.03 |
5 east | 4 | 12.98 | 1 | 7.59 |
13 | 7 | 20.35 | 13 | 18.65 |
2 | 1 | 18.65 | 9 | 23.19 |
7 | 5 | 23.07 | 0 | 0.00 |
3 | 5 | 35.32 | 0 | 0.00 |
3 | 8 | 27.35 | 16 | 72.74 |
13 north | 4 | 32.60 | 5 | 7.86 |
2 north | 3 | 19.28 | 28 | 20.50 |
7 north | 5 | 34.76 | 15 | 16.35 |
14 | 5 | 26.89 | 32 | 18.87 |
1 | 3 | 29.22 | 45 | 20.86 |
13 east | 4 | 27.55 | 20 | 17.34 |
2 east | 3 | 46.29 | 11 | 35.53 |
9 | 3 | 19.58 | 10 | 19.11 |
10 | 3 | 22.46 | 44 | 31.63 |
13 west | 4 | 27.42 | 4 | 5.90 |
7 south | 6 | 22.35 | 21 | 21.18 |
2 west | 2 | 23.25 | 15 | 18.63 |
12 | 3 | 27.40 | 0 | 0.00 |
8 | 6 | 25.95 | 7 | 15.83 |
4 | 3 | 17.40 | 0 | 0.00 |
Table 3.
First dimension of the principal component analyses (PCAs) conducted on Grinnellian niche characteristics of birds from biomes in the western hemisphere descending from northern to southern poles. Principal components were retained using the broken stick criteria. Blue (+) and red (−) colors provide a visual representation of major contributors to the PCA gradient. The following tables show components retained for each biome. Biome number: 1 = Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests, 2 = Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests, 3 = Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests, 4 = Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests, 5 = Temperate Conifer Forests, 6 = Boreal Forests, 7 = Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 8 = Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 9 = Flooded Grasslands and Savannas, 10 = Montane Grasslands and Shrublands, 11 = Tundra, 12 = Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub, 13 = Deserts and Xeric Shrublands, 14 = Mangroves. AET = actual evapotranspiration, Temp = temperature, % = percent variation explained by the principal component.
Table 3.
First dimension of the principal component analyses (PCAs) conducted on Grinnellian niche characteristics of birds from biomes in the western hemisphere descending from northern to southern poles. Principal components were retained using the broken stick criteria. Blue (+) and red (−) colors provide a visual representation of major contributors to the PCA gradient. The following tables show components retained for each biome. Biome number: 1 = Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests, 2 = Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests, 3 = Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests, 4 = Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests, 5 = Temperate Conifer Forests, 6 = Boreal Forests, 7 = Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 8 = Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 9 = Flooded Grasslands and Savannas, 10 = Montane Grasslands and Shrublands, 11 = Tundra, 12 = Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub, 13 = Deserts and Xeric Shrublands, 14 = Mangroves. AET = actual evapotranspiration, Temp = temperature, % = percent variation explained by the principal component.
Biomes | AET | Elevation | Human Index | Precipitation | Temp. | % |
---|
Nearctic | Max | Mean | Min | Max | Mean | Min | Max | Mean | Min | Max | Mean | Min | Max | Min | |
11 | 0.86 | 0.75 | 0.68 | 0.62 | 0.18 | −0.13 | 0.94 | 0.88 | 0.45 | 0.83 | 0.83 | 0.82 | 0.96 | 0.91 | 56.26 |
6 | 0.3 | 0.57 | 0.65 | 0.84 | 0.89 | 0.85 | −0.65 | −0.56 | −0.48 | −0.71 | −0.7 | −0.7 | 0.32 | −0.5 | 41.91 |
5 west | 0.37 | 0.73 | 0.84 | 0.85 | 0.85 | 0.83 | −0.76 | −0.86 | −0.83 | 0.56 | 0.56 | 0.56 | 0.03 | −0.32 | 47.07 |
4 west | 0.83 | 0.79 | 0.46 | −0.57 | −0.71 | −0.9 | −0.11 | −0.66 | −0.8 | −0.78 | −0.79 | −0.77 | −0.45 | 0.56 | 47.2 |
8 | 0.77 | 0.75 | 0.69 | −0.72 | −0.7 | −0.69 | 0.53 | 0.6 | 0.67 | 0.83 | 0.83 | 0.83 | −0.02 | 0.59 | 47.4 |
4 east | 0.52 | 0.63 | 0.61 | −0.3 | −0.51 | −0.47 | −0.29 | −0.21 | −0.35 | −0.53 | −0.52 | −0.51 | 0.91 | 0.9 | 30.74 |
12 | 0.53 | 0.78 | 0.87 | 0.97 | 0.97 | 0.95 | −0.84 | −0.88 | −0.85 | 0.84 | 0.84 | 0.82 | 0.01 | −0.81 | 67.09 |
5 east | 0.05 | 0.41 | 0.48 | 0.91 | 0.9 | 0.89 | 0 | −0.09 | −0.14 | −0.72 | −0.72 | −0.72 | −0.06 | −0.24 | 31.88 |
13 | −0.11 | 0 | 0.17 | 0.97 | 0.96 | 0.94 | −0.51 | −0.57 | −0.55 | 0.17 | 0.16 | 0.14 | −0.81 | −0.9 | 37.43 |
2 | 0.79 | 0.88 | 0.97 | 0.98 | 0.99 | 0.97 | −0.95 | −0.88 | −0.82 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.99 | −0.83 | −0.96 | 86.69 |
7 | −0.61 | 0.04 | 0.45 | 0.87 | 0.85 | 0.8 | 0.37 | 0.45 | 0.47 | −0.7 | −0.7 | −0.71 | 0.87 | −0.19 | 39.44 |
3 | 0.21 | 0.14 | 0.06 | −0.95 | −0.97 | −0.93 | 0.45 | 0.7 | 0.49 | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.09 | 0.82 | 0.95 | 37.82 |
Neotropic | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
3 | −0.73 | −0.74 | −0.6 | 0.82 | 0.88 | 0.92 | 0.66 | 0.63 | 0.48 | −0.28 | −0.32 | −0.35 | −0.83 | −0.87 | 46.87 |
13 north | −0.54 | 0.23 | 0.53 | 0.79 | 0.88 | 0.86 | −0.25 | −0.35 | −0.48 | 0.79 | 0.76 | 0.73 | −0.84 | −0.82 | 44.78 |
2 north | −0.68 | −0.64 | −0.46 | 0.77 | 0.75 | 0.69 | −0.14 | −0.04 | −0.16 | −0.28 | −0.31 | −0.34 | −0.8 | −0.89 | 32.21 |
7 north | 0.91 | 0.93 | 0.92 | 0.24 | 0.26 | 0.48 | −0.61 | −0.66 | −0.69 | 0.28 | 0.25 | 0.27 | −0.76 | −0.94 | 41.93 |
14 | −0.83 | −0.88 | −0.5 | 0.18 | 0.4 | 0.57 | 0.76 | 0.79 | 0.77 | −0.4 | −0.39 | −0.39 | −0.68 | −0.75 | 39.37 |
9 | 0.85 | 0.9 | 0.91 | 0.78 | 0.91 | 0.97 | −0.52 | −0.36 | −0.26 | 0.96 | 0.96 | 0.96 | 0.81 | 0.96 | 68.33 |
1 | −0.63 | −0.66 | −0.67 | 0.86 | 0.87 | 0.88 | 0.48 | 0.46 | 0.38 | −0.89 | −0.91 | −0.92 | −0.9 | −0.93 | 59.1 |
13 east | −0.75 | −0.67 | −0.61 | 0.9 | 0.94 | 0.93 | −0.64 | −0.77 | −0.67 | −0.21 | −0.24 | −0.23 | −0.84 | −0.93 | 50.58 |
2 east | −0.61 | −0.24 | −0.09 | 0.89 | 0.93 | 0.93 | 0.45 | 0.4 | 0.42 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.78 | −0.85 | −0.69 | 46.92 |
10 | 0.83 | 0.81 | 0.78 | 0.73 | 0.72 | 0.77 | −0.27 | −0.18 | −0.13 | 0.65 | 0.65 | 0.63 | −0.78 | −0.48 | 41.67 |
13 west | −0.07 | 0.49 | 0.81 | 0.95 | 0.97 | 0.97 | −0.7 | −0.71 | −0.7 | 0.96 | 0.97 | 0.96 | −0.87 | −0.97 | 68.89 |
7 south | 0.87 | 0.91 | 0.8 | 0.47 | 0.51 | 0.53 | −0.73 | −0.77 | −0.71 | 0.9 | 0.89 | 0.86 | −0.29 | −0.02 | 50.34 |
2 west | −0.25 | −0.19 | −0.36 | 0.89 | 0.9 | 0.89 | −0.68 | −0.66 | −0.51 | −0.74 | −0.74 | −0.76 | −0.87 | −0.91 | 50.47 |
12 | −0.77 | −0.76 | −0.33 | 0.96 | 0.96 | 0.96 | −0.95 | −0.92 | −0.89 | −0.07 | −0.1 | −0.11 | −0.95 | −0.93 | 59.92 |
8 | −0.82 | −0.9 | −0.79 | 0.87 | 0.9 | 0.88 | −0.7 | −0.69 | −0.62 | −0.92 | −0.92 | −0.92 | −0.85 | −0.95 | 71.35 |
4 | −0.5 | −0.61 | −0.55 | 0.86 | 0.87 | 0.86 | −0.7 | −0.76 | −0.69 | −0.41 | −0.43 | −0.44 | −0.1 | −0.88 | 43.13 |
Table 4.
First dimension of principal component analyses conducted on Eltonian niche characteristics of birds from biomes in the western hemisphere descending from northern to southern poles. The following tables show components retained, using the broken stick criteria, for each biome. Blue (+) and red (−) colors provide a visual representation of major contributors to the PCA gradient. Biome number: 1 = Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests, 2 = Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests, 3 = Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests, 4 = Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests, 5 = Temperate Conifer Forests, 6 = Boreal Forests, 7 = Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 8 = Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 9 = Flooded Grasslands and Savannas, 10 = Montane Grasslands and Shrublands, 11 = Tundra, 12 = Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub, 13 = Deserts and Xeric Shrublands, 14 = Mangroves. Inv = invertebrate, Nect = nectar, Scav = scavenger, Vect = ectothermic vertebrate, Vend = endothermic vertebrate, Vunk = unknown vertebrates, % = percent variation explained by the principal component.
Table 4.
First dimension of principal component analyses conducted on Eltonian niche characteristics of birds from biomes in the western hemisphere descending from northern to southern poles. The following tables show components retained, using the broken stick criteria, for each biome. Blue (+) and red (−) colors provide a visual representation of major contributors to the PCA gradient. Biome number: 1 = Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests, 2 = Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests, 3 = Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests, 4 = Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests, 5 = Temperate Conifer Forests, 6 = Boreal Forests, 7 = Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 8 = Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 9 = Flooded Grasslands and Savannas, 10 = Montane Grasslands and Shrublands, 11 = Tundra, 12 = Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub, 13 = Deserts and Xeric Shrublands, 14 = Mangroves. Inv = invertebrate, Nect = nectar, Scav = scavenger, Vect = ectothermic vertebrate, Vend = endothermic vertebrate, Vunk = unknown vertebrates, % = percent variation explained by the principal component.
Biomes | Inv | Seed | Fruit | Vend | Vect | Fish | Vunk | Scav | Nect | Plant | % |
---|
Nearctic | | | | | | | | | | | |
11 | 0.20 | −0.25 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.00 | −0.15 | 45.60 |
6 | 0.20 | −0.29 | 0.05 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.10 | 48.19 |
5 west | 0.19 | −0.30 | 0.05 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.07 | 47.49 |
4 west | 0.21 | −0.30 | −0.02 | −0.01 | −0.01 | −0.01 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.00 | −0.10 | 50.18 |
8 | 0.18 | −0.30 | 0.05 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.06 | 46.45 |
4 east | 0.18 | −0.30 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.02 | −0.07 | 46.94 |
12 | 0.19 | −0.31 | 0.03 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.08 | 48.66 |
5 east | 0.18 | −0.29 | 0.05 | −0.01 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.04 | 46.30 |
13 | 0.18 | −0.30 | 0.05 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.06 | 45.84 |
2 | 0.16 | −0.30 | 0.07 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.03 | 44.53 |
7 | 0.17 | −0.29 | 0.06 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.02 | −0.03 | 47.04 |
3 | 0.18 | −0.30 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | −0.05 | 44.41 |
Neotropic | | | | | | | | | | |
3 | 0.20 | −0.14 | −0.22 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.04 | 40.41 |
13 north | 0.21 | −0.01 | −0.31 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.02 | −0.02 | 43.00 |
2 north | 0.19 | −0.01 | −0.31 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.01 | 44.55 |
7 north | 0.22 | −0.01 | −0.32 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.02 | −0.01 | 53.64 |
14 | 0.22 | −0.04 | −0.30 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.02 | −0.01 | 47.11 |
1 | 0.24 | −0.04 | −0.33 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.01 | 61.10 |
13 east | 0.24 | −0.22 | −0.15 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.01 | 45.22 |
2 east | 0.23 | −0.19 | −0.19 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 44.36 |
9 | 0.24 | −0.20 | −0.19 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.02 | −0.04 | 50.11 |
10 | 0.28 | −0.25 | −0.14 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | −0.07 | 50.19 |
13 west | 0.27 | −0.33 | −0.02 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | −0.03 | 52.59 |
7 south | 0.23 | −0.14 | −0.24 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.03 | 49.93 |
2 west | 0.25 | −0.11 | −0.28 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.03 | 50.39 |
12 | 0.29 | −0.36 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | −0.02 | 69.78 |
8 | 0.27 | −0.30 | −0.05 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.08 | 57.22 |
4 | 0.28 | −0.32 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.08 | 65.32 |
Table 5.
The relationship between distribution of species and unique Grinnellian and Eltonian niche characteristics and spatial structure were examined using variation partitioning with redundancy analyses within multiple biomes across the western hemisphere. Bolded values indicate a significant amount of variation accounted for in distribution of species. Biome number: 1 = Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests, 2 = Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests, 3 = Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests, 4 = Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests, 5 = Temperate Conifer Forests, 6 = Boreal Forests, 7 = Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 8 = Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 9 = Flooded Grasslands and Savannas, 10 = Montane Grasslands and Shrublands, 11 = Tundra, 12 = Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub, 13 = Deserts and Xeric Shrublands, 14 = Mangroves.
Table 5.
The relationship between distribution of species and unique Grinnellian and Eltonian niche characteristics and spatial structure were examined using variation partitioning with redundancy analyses within multiple biomes across the western hemisphere. Bolded values indicate a significant amount of variation accounted for in distribution of species. Biome number: 1 = Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests, 2 = Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests, 3 = Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests, 4 = Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests, 5 = Temperate Conifer Forests, 6 = Boreal Forests, 7 = Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 8 = Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 9 = Flooded Grasslands and Savannas, 10 = Montane Grasslands and Shrublands, 11 = Tundra, 12 = Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub, 13 = Deserts and Xeric Shrublands, 14 = Mangroves.
Biomes | Grinnellian | Eltonian | Spatial |
---|
Nearctic | F | R2adj. | P | F | R2adj. | P | F | R2adj. | P |
11 | 27.2 | 38.7 | 0.002 | 2.1 | 3.7 | 0.006 | NA | NA | NA |
6 | 11.9 | 13.8 | 0.002 | 1.6 | 1.4 | 0.162 | NA | NA | NA |
4 west | 39.2 | 50.5 | 0.002 | 7.6 | 15.1 | 0.002 | NA | NA | NA |
5 west | 8.6 | 6.4 | 0.004 | 2 | 0.9 | 0.152 | NA | NA | NA |
8 | 41.2 | 35.4 | 0.002 | 1.4 | 0.4 | 0.180 | 5.6 | 29.9 | 0.002 |
4 east | 106 | 69.7 | 0.002 | 0.1 | <0.1 | 0.922 | 13.9 | 17.5 | 0.002 |
12 | 8.8 | 4.9 | 0.002 | 0.8 | <0.1 | 0.600 | 1 | 0 | 0.478 |
5 east | 39.1 | 43.7 | 0.002 | 1.1 | 0.1 | 0.348 | 5.6 | 3.1 | 0.002 |
13 | 13.4 | 16.3 | 0.002 | 0.5 | 1.6 | 0.176 | 1.4 | 1.9 | 0.126 |
2 | 984 | 93.8 | 0.002 | 1 | <0.1 | 0.358 | 2.9 | 19.3 | 0.004 |
7 | 11.1 | 21.3 | 0.002 | 0.9 | <0.1 | 0.462 | NA | NA | NA |
3 | 70.2 | 48.2 | 0.002 | 1.9 | 0.8 | 0.088 | NA | NA | NA |
Neotropic | | | | | | | | |
3 | 26.2 | 19.8 | 0.002 | 1.3 | 0.2 | 0.216 | 4.6 | 15.4 | 0.002 |
13 north | 52.9 | 42.1 | 0.002 | 0.6 | <0.1 | 0.684 | 23.5 | 34.3 | 0.002 |
2 north | 135 | 60.1 | 0.002 | 0.8 | <0.1 | 0.512 | 63.4 | 24.5 | 0.002 |
7 north | 24.9 | 38.9 | 0.002 | 1.2 | 0.2 | 0.304 | 5 | 27.8 | 0.002 |
14 | 36.4 | 30 | 0.002 | 1.8 | 0.6 | 0.124 | 18.5 | 67 | 0.002 |
1 | 158 | 36.7 | 0.002 | 1.1 | <0.1 | 0.316 | 27.4 | 58.1 | 0.002 |
13 east | 12.6 | 15.1 | 0.002 | 2.1 | 1.7 | 0.052 | 2.1 | 13.2 | 0.002 |
2 east | 29.3 | 42.1 | 0.002 | 2 | 2.5 | 0.100 | 8.6 | 48.9 | 0.002 |
9 | 13.2 | 14 | 0.002 | 2.5 | 2 | 0.048 | 2.9 | 11 | 0.002 |
10 | 49.3 | 45.2 | 0.002 | 1.2 | 0.2 | 0.330 | 11.2 | 67.4 | 0.002 |
7 south | 61.9 | 25.8 | 0.002 | 0.7 | <0.1 | 0.658 | 24.3 | 56.9 | 0.002 |
2 west | 76.3 | 59 | 0.002 | 3 | 2.5 | 0.032 | 13 | 51.6 | 0.002 |
13 west | 21.3 | 18.3 | 0.002 | 0.9 | <0.1 | 0.434 | 3.5 | 9.6 | 0.006 |
12 | 11.7 | 28.7 | 0.002 | 0.5 | 0 | 0.634 | NA | NA | NA |
8 | 31.4 | 16.5 | 0.002 | 3.6 | 3.2 | 0.002 | 4.7 | 13.8 | 0.002 |
4 | 33.2 | 49.8 | 0.002 | 0.7 | <0.1 | 0.496 | NA | NA | NA |
Table 6.
Redundancy analyses conducted on phylogenetic structure (created with principal coordinate analyses) and passerine Grinnellian and Eltonian niche characteristics in multiple biomes across the latitudinal gradient. Bolded values indicate significance. Axes are the number of phylogenetic components retained following the broken stick criterion. Biome number: 1 = Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests, 2 = Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests, 3 = Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests, 4 = Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests, 5 = Temperate Conifer Forests, 6 = Boreal Forests, 7 = Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 8 = Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 9 = Flooded Grasslands and Savannas, 10 = Montane Grasslands and Shrublands, 11 = Tundra, 12 = Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub, 13 = Deserts and Xeric Shrublands, 14 = Mangroves. % = percent variation explained by the principal coordinate analysis.
Table 6.
Redundancy analyses conducted on phylogenetic structure (created with principal coordinate analyses) and passerine Grinnellian and Eltonian niche characteristics in multiple biomes across the latitudinal gradient. Bolded values indicate significance. Axes are the number of phylogenetic components retained following the broken stick criterion. Biome number: 1 = Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests, 2 = Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests, 3 = Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests, 4 = Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests, 5 = Temperate Conifer Forests, 6 = Boreal Forests, 7 = Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 8 = Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands, 9 = Flooded Grasslands and Savannas, 10 = Montane Grasslands and Shrublands, 11 = Tundra, 12 = Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub, 13 = Deserts and Xeric Shrublands, 14 = Mangroves. % = percent variation explained by the principal coordinate analysis.
Biomes | Grinnellian | Eltonian | | |
---|
Nearctic | F | R2adj. | P | F | R2adj. | P | Axes | % |
11 | 1 | 0 | 0.472 | 5.4 | 20.9 | 0.002 | 4 | 53.06 |
6 | 0.9 | 0 | 0.534 | 8.3 | 22.1 | 0.002 | 4 | 51.79 |
4 west | 1.7 | 4.5 | 0.114 | 5.2 | 22.3 | 0.002 | 4 | 53.18 |
5 west | 1.8 | 4.7 | 0.026 | 9.5 | 34.6 | 0.002 | 11 | 65.79 |
8 | 1.3 | 1.5 | 0.134 | 9.9 | 32.4 | 0.002 | 10 | 63.5 |
4 east | 0 | 0.6 | 0.954 | 10.8 | 35.9 | 0.002 | 8 | 60.01 |
12 | 1.6 | 3 | 0.176 | 26.2 | 7.5 | 0.002 | 7 | 57.13 |
5 east | 0.5 | 0 | 0.904 | 6.9 | 21.6 | 0.002 | 5 | 56.89 |
13 | 2.6 | 8.2 | 0.002 | 11.2 | 36.4 | 0.002 | 12 | 67.33 |
2 | 1.7 | 3.1 | 0.174 | 3.6 | 10.8 | 0.004 | 3 | 52.54 |
7 | 1.9 | 4.5 | 0.012 | 7.7 | 26.2 | 0.002 | 6 | 58.82 |
3 | 1.5 | 2.4 | 0.052 | 10.7 | 32.4 | 0.002 | 9 | 61.84 |
Neotropic | | | | | | | |
3 | 3.8 | 11.8 | 0.002 | 10.7 | 32 | 0.002 | 13 | 68.04 |
13 north | 2.6 | 6.7 | 0.002 | 8.9 | 26.5 | 0.002 | 9 | 63.83 |
2 north | 1.7 | 2.1 | 0.006 | 14.5 | 30.9 | 0.002 | 11 | 66.83 |
7 north | 1.3 | 1.4 | 0.142 | 10.1 | 29.2 | 0.002 | 7 | 63.84 |
14 | 2 | 3.9 | 0.004 | 13.7 | 34.1 | 0.002 | 10 | 67.49 |
1 | 6.2 | 11 | 0.002 | 33 | 43.3 | 0.002 | 18 | 69.92 |
13 east | 1.7 | 2.5 | 0.076 | 12 | 27.7 | 0.002 | 5 | 60.64 |
2 east | 1.6 | 2.8 | 0.148 | 10.6 | 32 | 0.002 | 4 | 60.99 |
9 | 1.7 | 2.7 | 0.058 | 11.2 | 28.6 | 0.002 | 6 | 65.31 |
10 | 2.3 | 5 | 0.004 | 10.4 | 28.4 | 0.002 | 8 | 66.06 |
7 south | 4.2 | 7.8 | 0.002 | 18.9 | 31.9 | 0.002 | 9 | 65.14 |
2 west | 1.6 | 2.5 | 0.06 | 10.8 | 29.5 | 0.002 | 7 | 64.08 |
13 west | 3.3 | 7.5 | 0.02 | 12.2 | 28.3 | 0.002 | 3 | 59.75 |
12 | 3.1 | 15.7 | 0.01 | 64.9 | 22.3 | 0.002 | 4 | 61.74 |
8 | 2.1 | 3.7 | 0.046 | 17.4 | 35.3 | 0.002 | 5 | 62.36 |
4 | 1.2 | 1.5 | 0.294 | 15.8 | 56.1 | 0.002 | 5 | 66.32 |