The Potential Role of the Microbiome in the Pathogenesis of Nasal Tumors: A Comprehensive Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Nasal Microbiome: An Overview
3. Mechanisms Linking Dysbiosis to Carcinogenesis
3.1. Chronic Inflammation
3.2. Immune Evasion
3.3. Direct Carcinogenic Effects of Bacterial Toxins
4. Fungal and Viral Contributions to Nasal Carcinogenesis
4.1. Fungal Involvement
4.2. Viral Involvement
4.2.1. Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)
4.2.2. Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV)
5. Clinical Implications and Potential Therapeutic Approaches
5.1. Microbiome-Targeted Interventions
5.2. Antibiotic and Antifungal Therapies
5.3. Immunotherapy
6. Future Directions for Research
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Mechanisms Linking Dysbiosis to Carcinogenesis | Molecular Mediator | Molecular Mechanism | References |
---|---|---|---|
Chronic Inflammation | Reactive oxygen species | DNA damage Cellular process disruption Malignant transformation promotion | [44,45,46] |
Nuclear factor kappa B | [47] | ||
Tumor necrosis factor α | [48] | ||
Inflammatory cytokines | |||
Immune Evasion | Superantigens and other virulence factors secretion (Staphylococcus aureus) | Normal immune response disruption | [56,57,58] |
Bacterial Toxins | Toxins and metabolites production (Staphylococcus aureus) | DNA damage Interference with cellular signaling Immunosuppressive environment | [59] |
Pyocyanin (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) | Reactive oxygen species triggering | [60] |
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Loperfido, A.; Rizzo, D.; Fionda, B.; Mureddu, L.; Tondo, A.; Tagliaferri, L.; Bellocchi, G.; Delogu, G.; Bussu, F. The Potential Role of the Microbiome in the Pathogenesis of Nasal Tumors: A Comprehensive Review. Medicina 2024, 60, 1808. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60111808
Loperfido A, Rizzo D, Fionda B, Mureddu L, Tondo A, Tagliaferri L, Bellocchi G, Delogu G, Bussu F. The Potential Role of the Microbiome in the Pathogenesis of Nasal Tumors: A Comprehensive Review. Medicina. 2024; 60(11):1808. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60111808
Chicago/Turabian StyleLoperfido, Antonella, Davide Rizzo, Bruno Fionda, Luca Mureddu, Andrea Tondo, Luca Tagliaferri, Gianluca Bellocchi, Giovanni Delogu, and Francesco Bussu. 2024. "The Potential Role of the Microbiome in the Pathogenesis of Nasal Tumors: A Comprehensive Review" Medicina 60, no. 11: 1808. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60111808