Association of Dietary Inflammatory Index and Thyroid Function in Patients with Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis: An Observational Cross–Sectional Multicenter Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Participants
2.2. Blood Samples and Laboratory Assessments
2.3. The Assessment of Dietary Intake
2.4. The Inflammatory Potential of Participants’ Diet
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Dietary Inflammatory Index Tertiles | p * | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T1 < −1.4 (n = 50) | T2 −1.39 to +1.20 (n = 51) | T3 > +1.21 (n = 48) | |||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | ||
Age (years) | 47.52 | 11.73 | 48.90 | 12.68 | 45.43 | 14.24 | 0.42 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 27.46 | 4.45 | 28.74 | 5.92 | 28.80 | 7.46 | 0.46 |
n | % | n | % | n | % | ||
Gender | |||||||
Female | 44 | 88 | 49 | 96 | 47 | 98 | 0.09 |
Marital status | |||||||
Unmarried or without a partner | 6 | 12 | 7 | 14 | 7 | 14.6 | 0.36 |
Married or with a partner | 38 | 76 | 42 | 82 | 36 | 75 | |
Divorced | 6 | 12 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 6.3 | |
Widowed | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 4.1 | |
Education level | |||||||
High school | 3 | 6 | 8 | 16 | 5 | 10.4 | 0.54 |
College | 34 | 68 | 34 | 66 | 33 | 68.8 | |
University | 13 | 26 | 9 | 18 | 10 | 20.8 | |
Occupation level | |||||||
Employed | 35 | 70 | 32 | 62 | 35 | 72.9 | 0.87 |
Unemployed | 4 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 5 | 10.4 | |
Student | 2 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 2.1 | |
Retired | 9 | 18 | 9 | 18 | 7 | 14.6 | |
Smoking | 0.82 | ||||||
Yes | 15 | 30 | 15 | 30 | 13 | 27 | |
No | 35 | 70 | 36 | 70 | 35 | 73 | |
Use of anti-inflammatory medications | 0.17 | ||||||
Yes | 17 | 34 | 27 | 52 | 23 | 47.9 | |
No | 33 | 66 | 24 | 47 | 25 | 52 | |
Physical activity level | |||||||
Low | 14 | 28 | 29 | 56 | 15 | 31.3 | 0.008 |
Moderate | 33 | 66 | 19 | 38 | 33 | 68.7 | |
High | 3 | 6 | 3 | 6 | 0 | 0 |
Variables | Dietary Inflammatory Index Tertiles | p * | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T1 < −1.4 (n = 50) | T2 −1.39 to +1.20 (n = 51) | T3 > +1.21 (n = 48) | |||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | ||
CRP (nmol/L) | 3.09 | 1.74 | 3.46 | 4.21 | 4.09 | 5.21 | 0.46 |
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (mIU/L) | 2.56 | 1.71 | 3.89 | 4.99 | 3.97 | 3.15 | 0.09 |
Free thyroxine (pmol/L) | 14.88 | 2.33 | 13.05 | 3.46 | 13.95 | 2.65 | 0.007 |
Thyroid peroxidase antibodies (IU/L) | 232.92 | 131.65 | 650.52 | 1715.31 | 603.25 | 528.76 | 0.09 |
Variables | Dietary Inflammatory Index Tertiles | p | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T1 < −1.4 (n = 50) | T2 −1.39 to +1.20 (n = 51) | T3 > +1.21 (n = 48) | |||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | ||
DII® score | −2.74 | 0.75 | −0.28 | 0.67 | 3.16 | 1.52 | <0.001 * |
Energy intake—EI (kJ) | 11.98 | 3.17 | 9.71 | 3.52 | 7.00 | 2.27 | <0.001 * |
Proteins (% EI) | 16.04 | 1.96 | 16.77 | 3.35 | 18.09 | 4.84 | 0.02 * |
Total fat (% EI) | 37.45 | 6.45 | 39.22 | 7.70 | 40.10 | 7.06 | 0.17 |
Saturated fat (% EI) | 14.27 | 2.99 | 16.02 | 3.80 | 15.09 | 3.62 | 0.04 * |
Monounsaturated fatty acids (% EI) | 15.31 | 4.30 | 15.42 | 4.86 | 15.07 | 2.23 | 0.91 |
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (% EI) | 7.18 | 1.67 | 6.59 | 2.00 | 7.53 | 3.25 | 0.15 |
Omega 3 fatty acids (g) | 1.43 | 1.22 | 0.78 | 0.79 | 0.43 | 0.26 | <0.001 * |
Omega 6 fatty acids (g) | 1.83 | 1.33 | 1.75 | 1.45 | 1.56 | 1.33 | 0.002 * |
Trans fatty acids (% EI) | 1.74 | 0.68 | 1.71 | 1.11 | 1.21 | 0.64 | 0.003 * |
Cholesterol (mg) | 379.15 | 124.94 | 323.36 | 162.54 | 259.10 | 126.67 | 0.002 * |
Carbohydrates (% EI) | 43.65 | 6.98 | 43.05 | 9.53 | 39.29 | 8.36 | <0.001 * |
Dietary fiber (g) | 43.73 | 13.25 | 37.94 | 20.76 | 15.92 | 6.00 | <0.001 * |
Alcohol (g) | 2.86 | 3.88 | 0.97 | 2.26 | 2.51 | 7.86 | 0.16 |
Beta-carotene (mg) | 5.13 | 3.90 | 3.20 | 3.32 | 3.04 | 2.17 | <0.001 * |
Vitamin A (mg) | 1.34 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 0.8 | 0.59 | 0.52 | <0.001 * |
Vitamin D (µg) | 10.55 | 12.39 | 8.08 | 10.77 | 4.28 | 5.23 | 0.01 * |
Vitamin E (mg) | 10.71 | 8.31 | 7.91 | 7.36 | 6.91 | 4.23 | <0.001 * |
Vitamin C (mg) | 216.03 | 129.35 | 152.37 | 129.00 | 106.34 | 53.29 | <0.001* |
Vitamin B1 (mg) | 0.84 | 3.55 | 0.85 | 2.88 | 0.61 | 1.57 | <0.001* |
Vitamin B2 (mg) | 2.15 | 1.11 | 1.88 | 1.06 | 1.07 | 0.62 | <0.001 * |
Vitamin B3 (mg) | 26.49 | 7.28 | 23.39 | 9.24 | 14.97 | 6.26 | <0.001 * |
Vitamin B6 (mg) | 4.57 | 2.25 | 3.02 | 1.88 | 1.96 | 1.03 | <0.001 * |
Vitamin B9 (mg) | 477.99 | 175.33 | 369.55 | 171.31 | 203.66 | 80.19 | <0.001 * |
Vitamin B12 (µg) | 6.73 | 3.11 | 5.13 | 3.33 | 3.59 | 2.31 | <0.001 * |
Calcium (mg) | 1501.60 | 506.55 | 1235.39 | 571.85 | 684.38 | 343.82 | <0.001 * |
Iron (mg) | 19.87 | 8.35 | 15.41 | 10.30 | 8.93 | 3.64 | <0.001 * |
Magnesium (mg) | 539.10 | 196.24 | 386.75 | 139.95 | 218.11 | 75.44 | <0.001 * |
Zinc (mg) | 17.54 | 4.24 | 14.94 | 6.06 | 10.01 | 4.26 | <0.001 * |
Selenium (µg) | 38.54 | 15.26 | 28.11 | 17.66 | 21.36 | 11.27 | <0.001 * |
Iodine (µg) | 77.40 | 37.51 | 65.76 | 41.62 | 37.86 | 25.59 | <0.001 * |
Caffeine (mg) | 302.01 | 260.08 | 284.12 | 226.35 | 273.58 | 248.98 | 0.85 |
Flavan-3-ol (mg) | 835.08 | 1158.95 | 235.84 | 523.42 | 466.40 | 1581.19 | 0.03 * |
Flavones (mg) | 4.02 | 2.17 | 3.19 | 2.38 | 1.48 | 1.18 | <0.001 * |
Flavonols (mg) | 104.92 | 92.79 | 74.00 | 54.13 | 43.43 | 51.40 | <0.001 * |
Flavonones (mg) | 85.23 | 94.60 | 60.95 | 82.26 | 27.86 | 38.49 | 0.001 * |
Anthocyanidins (mg) | 57.46 | 49.14 | 21.23 | 29.32 | 21.65 | 56.22 | <0.001 * |
Variables | Model 0 † | Model I ‡ | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
β | p | β | p | |
Body weight (kg) | −0.01 | 0.70 | 0.01 | 0.79 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 0.06 | 0.46 | 0.14 | 0.04 * |
C-reactive protein (nmol/L) | 0.20 | 0.24 | 0.03 | 0.52 |
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (mIU/L) | 0.42 | <0.001 * | 0.33 | 0.002 * |
Free thyroxine (pmol/L) | 0.19 | <0.001 * | 0.02 | 0.68 |
Thyroid peroxidase antibodies (IU/L) | 0.04 | 0.52 | −0.02 | 0.69 |
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Klobučar, S.; Kenđel Jovanović, G.; Kryczyk-Kozioł, J.; Cigrovski Berković, M.; Vučak Lončar, J.; Morić, N.; Peljhan, K.; Rahelić, D.; Mudri, D.; Bilić-Ćurčić, I.; et al. Association of Dietary Inflammatory Index and Thyroid Function in Patients with Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis: An Observational Cross–Sectional Multicenter Study. Medicina 2024, 60, 1454. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60091454
Klobučar S, Kenđel Jovanović G, Kryczyk-Kozioł J, Cigrovski Berković M, Vučak Lončar J, Morić N, Peljhan K, Rahelić D, Mudri D, Bilić-Ćurčić I, et al. Association of Dietary Inflammatory Index and Thyroid Function in Patients with Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis: An Observational Cross–Sectional Multicenter Study. Medicina. 2024; 60(9):1454. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60091454
Chicago/Turabian StyleKlobučar, Sanja, Gordana Kenđel Jovanović, Jadwiga Kryczyk-Kozioł, Maja Cigrovski Berković, Jelena Vučak Lončar, Nikolina Morić, Katarina Peljhan, Dario Rahelić, Dunja Mudri, Ines Bilić-Ćurčić, and et al. 2024. "Association of Dietary Inflammatory Index and Thyroid Function in Patients with Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis: An Observational Cross–Sectional Multicenter Study" Medicina 60, no. 9: 1454. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60091454