Estimation of the Inhaled Dose of Airborne Pollutants during Commuting: Case Study and Application for the General Population
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Instrumentation
2.2. Estimation of the Inhaled Dose
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Case Study
3.2. General Population
3.3. Limits of the Study and Future Developments
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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ME | Hour (From–To; min) | Time of Stay (min) | Route Length (km) |
---|---|---|---|
Car | 7:50–8:10 | 20 | 10 |
Walking (LT) | 8:25–8:35 | 10 | 0.7 |
Train | 8:45–9:35 | 50 | 45 |
Walking (LT) | 9:35–9:55 | 20 | 1.5 |
Walking (HT) | 9:55–10:05 | 10 | 0.5 |
Underground | 10:05–10:15 | 10 | 2.5 |
Walking (HT) | 10:20–10:30 | 10 | 0.6 |
Cycling | 10:30–10:50 | 20 | 3 |
Indoor | 10:50–12:00 | 70 | n.a |
Walking (HT) * | 12:00–12:10 | 10 | 0.6 |
Underground * | 12:10–12:20 | 10 | 2.5 |
Walking (HT) * | 12:20–12:30 | 10 | 0.5 |
Walking (LT) * | 12:30–12:50 | 20 | 1.5 |
Train * | 13:20–14:10 | 50 | 45 |
Walking (LT) * | 14:10–14:20 | 10 | 0.7 |
Car * | 14:20–14:40 | 20 | 10 |
Season | Pollutant | H | TB | P | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Summer | PM1 | 0.76 | 0.29 | 0.57 | 1.62 |
PM2.5 | 3.17 | 0.56 | 1.35 | 5.07 | |
PM4 | 5.60 | 0.74 | 1.26 | 7.60 | |
PM10 | 11.24 | 0.41 | 0.08 | 11.73 | |
Winter | PM1 | 0.87 | 0.33 | 0.66 | 1.87 |
PM2.5 | 3.94 | 0.69 | 1.68 | 6.31 | |
PM4 | 7.29 | 0.96 | 1.64 | 9.89 | |
PM10 | 15.80 | 0.58 | 0.12 | 16.50 |
ME | Winter | Summer | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Head | TB | P | Total | Head | TB | P | Total | ||
PM1 | Walking (LT) | 0.284 | 0.108 | 0.215 | 0.607 | 0.356 | 0.136 | 0.270 | 0.762 |
Walking (HT) | 1.381 | 0.528 | 1.046 | 2.955 | 1.574 | 0.602 | 1.192 | 3.368 | |
Bike | 0.666 | 0.255 | 0.505 | 1.426 | 0.465 | 0.178 | 0.352 | 0.994 | |
Car | 0.231 | 0.088 | 0.175 | 0.495 | 0.136 | 0.052 | 0.103 | 0.291 | |
Underground | 2.155 | 0.824 | 1.632 | 4.611 | 0.636 | 0.243 | 0.481 | 1.360 | |
Train | 0.615 | 0.235 | 0.466 | 1.316 | 0.537 | 0.205 | 0.407 | 1.148 | |
Indoor | 0.918 | 0.351 | 0.695 | 1.964 | 0.852 | 0.326 | 0.646 | 1.824 | |
Other | 2.479 | 0.948 | 1.878 | 5.305 | 1.979 | 0.757 | 1.499 | 4.235 | |
PM2.5 | Walking (LT) | 1.233 | 0.217 | 0.524 | 1.975 | 1.400 | 0.246 | 0.595 | 2.241 |
Walking (HT) | 6.039 | 1.061 | 2.568 | 9.668 | 6.256 | 1.099 | 2.660 | 10.016 | |
Bike | 2.961 | 0.520 | 1.259 | 4.741 | 1.929 | 0.339 | 0.820 | 3.088 | |
Car | 0.923 | 0.162 | 0.393 | 1.478 | 0.553 | 0.097 | 0.235 | 0.885 | |
Underground | 10.966 | 1.927 | 4.662 | 17.555 | 3.207 | 0.563 | 1.363 | 5.134 | |
Train | 2.496 | 0.439 | 1.061 | 3.995 | 2.021 | 0.355 | 0.859 | 3.236 | |
Indoor | 4.048 | 0.711 | 1.721 | 6.480 | 3.427 | 0.602 | 1.457 | 5.486 | |
Other | 11.023 | 1.937 | 4.687 | 17.647 | 8.702 | 1.529 | 3.700 | 13.930 | |
PM4 | Walking (LT) | 2.189 | 0.287 | 0.494 | 2.971 | 2.454 | 0.322 | 0.554 | 3.329 |
Walking (HT) | 11.457 | 1.504 | 2.585 | 15.546 | 11.028 | 1.448 | 2.489 | 14.964 | |
Bike | 5.814 | 0.763 | 1.312 | 7.889 | 3.509 | 0.461 | 0.792 | 4.761 | |
Car | 1.510 | 0.198 | 0.341 | 2.049 | 0.930 | 0.122 | 0.210 | 1.261 | |
Underground | 21.110 | 2.771 | 4.764 | 28.644 | 6.103 | 0.801 | 1.377 | 8.281 | |
Train | 4.311 | 0.566 | 0.973 | 5.850 | 3.337 | 0.438 | 0.753 | 4.528 | |
Indoor | 7.425 | 0.975 | 1.676 | 10.076 | 5.968 | 0.783 | 1.347 | 8.099 | |
Other | 20.145 | 2.644 | 4.546 | 27.335 | 15.728 | 2.065 | 3.549 | 21.342 | |
PM10 | Walking (LT) | 5.857 | 0.214 | 0.043 | 6.114 | 5.355 | 0.196 | 0.039 | 5.590 |
Walking (HT) | 26.306 | 0.963 | 0.193 | 27.462 | 22.228 | 0.814 | 0.163 | 23.204 | |
Bike | 13.825 | 0.506 | 0.101 | 14.432 | 7.196 | 0.263 | 0.053 | 7.513 | |
Car | 2.524 | 0.092 | 0.018 | 2.635 | 1.609 | 0.059 | 0.012 | 1.679 | |
Underground | 44.346 | 1.624 | 0.325 | 46.295 | 12.666 | 0.464 | 0.093 | 13.223 | |
Train | 8.973 | 0.329 | 0.066 | 9.367 | 6.418 | 0.235 | 0.047 | 6.700 | |
Indoor | 16.018 | 0.586 | 0.117 | 16.722 | 11.533 | 0.422 | 0.084 | 12.039 | |
Other | 42.550 | 1.558 | 0.312 | 44.420 | 31.820 | 1.165 | 0.233 | 33.218 |
Summer | Winter | Summer | Winter | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PM1 | ME | Time (min) | Gender | Morning | Afternoon | Morning | Afternoon | PM2.5 | ME | Time (min) | Gender | Morning | Afternoon | Morning | Afternoon |
Train | 15 | Female | 2843 | 5330 | 3782 | 7379 | Train | 15 | Female | 3549 | 6341 | 5078 | 9283 | ||
30 | 5685 | 10,660 | 7564 | 14,758 | 30 | 7098 | 12,681 | 10,155 | 18,565 | ||||||
60 | 11,370 | 21,320 | 15,129 | 29,515 | 60 | 14,197 | 25,362 | 20,311 | 37,131 | ||||||
90 | 17,055 | 31,980 | 22,693 | 44,273 | 90 | 21,295 | 38,044 | 30,466 | 55,696 | ||||||
15 | Male | 3503 | 6568 | 4661 | 9093 | 15 | Male | 4374 | 7813 | 6257 | 11,439 | ||||
30 | 7005 | 13,136 | 9321 | 18,185 | 30 | 8747 | 15,626 | 12,514 | 22,877 | ||||||
60 | 14,011 | 26,272 | 18,643 | 36,371 | 60 | 17,494 | 31,253 | 25,028 | 45,754 | ||||||
90 | 21,016 | 39,408 | 27,964 | 54,556 | 90 | 26,241 | 46,879 | 37,542 | 68,632 | ||||||
Underground | 15 | Female | 5126 | 5830 | 4162 | 2832 | Underground | 15 | Female | 6224 | 7136 | 5257 | 13,360 | ||
30 | 10,251 | 11,660 | 8323 | 5663 | 30 | 12,447 | 14,273 | 10,515 | 26,720 | ||||||
60 | 20,503 | 23,320 | 16,646 | 11,327 | 60 | 24,895 | 28,546 | 21,030 | 53,441 | ||||||
90 | 30,754 | 34,979 | 24,969 | 16,990 | 90 | 37,342 | 42,819 | 31,545 | 80,161 | ||||||
15 | Male | 6316 | 7184 | 5128 | 3489 | 15 | Male | 7669 | 8794 | 6479 | 4542 | ||||
30 | 12,632 | 14,368 | 10,256 | 6979 | 30 | 15,338 | 17,588 | 12,957 | 9083 | ||||||
60 | 25,265 | 28,736 | 20,513 | 13,957 | 60 | 30,677 | 35,176 | 25,914 | 18,167 | ||||||
90 | 37,897 | 43,104 | 30,769 | 20,936 | 90 | 46,015 | 52,764 | 38,871 | 27,250 | ||||||
Car | 15 | Female | 5507 | 3244 | 4446 | 3331 | Car | 15 | Female | 7172 | 3838 | 5149 | 11,009 | ||
30 | 11,015 | 6489 | 8892 | 6662 | 30 | 14,343 | 7675 | 10,297 | 22,019 | ||||||
60 | 22,030 | 12,977 | 17,784 | 13,324 | 60 | 28,687 | 15,351 | 20,594 | 44,037 | ||||||
90 | 33,044 | 19,466 | 26,677 | 19,986 | 90 | 43,030 | 23,026 | 30,892 | 66,056 | ||||||
15 | Male | 6787 | 3998 | 5479 | 4105 | 15 | Male | 8837 | 4729 | 6344 | 5957 | ||||
30 | 13,573 | 7996 | 10,957 | 8209 | 30 | 17,675 | 9458 | 12,689 | 11,914 | ||||||
60 | 27,146 | 15,991 | 21,915 | 16,419 | 60 | 35,350 | 18,916 | 25,378 | 23,827 | ||||||
90 | 40,719 | 23,987 | 32,872 | 24,628 | 90 | 53,024 | 28,374 | 38,067 | 35,741 | ||||||
Bicycle | 15 | Female | 9962 | 3920 | 10,387 | 5714 | Bicycle | 15 | Female | 11,707 | 6197 | 13,561 | 17,905 | ||
30 | 19,924 | 7839 | 20,774 | 11,428 | 30 | 23,414 | 12,395 | 27,122 | 35,809 | ||||||
60 | 39,848 | 15,678 | 41,548 | 22,856 | 60 | 46,828 | 24,790 | 54,244 | 71,618 | ||||||
90 | 59,772 | 23,518 | 62,323 | 34,283 | 90 | 70,243 | 37,185 | 81,366 | 107,427 | ||||||
15 | Male | 11,495 | 4523 | 11,985 | 6593 | 15 | Male | 13,508 | 7151 | 15,647 | 9498 | ||||
30 | 22,989 | 9045 | 23,970 | 13,186 | 30 | 27,016 | 14,302 | 31,295 | 18,996 | ||||||
60 | 45,978 | 18,090 | 47,941 | 26,372 | 60 | 54,033 | 28,604 | 62,589 | 37,993 | ||||||
90 | 68,967 | 27,136 | 71,911 | 39,558 | 90 | 81,049 | 42,905 | 93,884 | 56,989 | ||||||
Walking | 15 | Female | 7655 | 9264 | 9348 | 13,462 | Walking | 15 | Female | 9211 | 11,091 | 11,867 | 20,302 | ||
30 | 15,310 | 18,529 | 18,697 | 26,924 | 30 | 18,422 | 22,182 | 23,734 | 40,604 | ||||||
60 | 30,619 | 37,058 | 37,394 | 53,847 | 60 | 36,845 | 44,364 | 47,468 | 81,209 | ||||||
90 | 45,929 | 55,587 | 56,091 | 80,771 | 90 | 55,267 | 66,546 | 71,202 | 121,813 | ||||||
15 | Male | 8832 | 10,690 | 10,787 | 15,533 | 15 | Male | 10,628 | 12,797 | 13,693 | 21,170 | ||||
30 | 17,665 | 21,379 | 21,573 | 31,066 | 30 | 21,257 | 25,595 | 27,385 | 42,341 | ||||||
60 | 35,330 | 42,759 | 43,147 | 62,131 | 60 | 42,513 | 51,189 | 54,771 | 84,682 | ||||||
90 | 52,994 | 64,138 | 64,720 | 93,197 | 90 | 63,770 | 76,784 | 82,156 | 127,023 | ||||||
Train | 15 | Female | 4351 | 7601 | 6368 | 11,193 | Train | 15 | Female | 6470 | 10,662 | 10,044 | 16,066 | ||
30 | 8701 | 15,201 | 12,737 | 22,387 | 30 | 12,941 | 21,325 | 20,088 | 32,132 | ||||||
60 | 17,403 | 30,403 | 25,474 | 44,774 | 60 | 25,881 | 42,649 | 40,177 | 64,265 | ||||||
90 | 26,104 | 45,604 | 38,211 | 67,161 | 90 | 38,822 | 63,974 | 60,265 | 96,397 | ||||||
15 | Male | 5361 | 9366 | 7848 | 13,793 | 15 | Male | 7973 | 13,139 | 12,377 | 19,798 | ||||
30 | 10,722 | 18,732 | 15,695 | 27,587 | 30 | 15,946 | 26,277 | 24,754 | 39,595 | ||||||
60 | 21,445 | 37,464 | 31,390 | 55,173 | 60 | 31,892 | 52,555 | 49,508 | 79,191 | ||||||
90 | 32,167 | 56,196 | 47,085 | 82,760 | 90 | 47,838 | 78,832 | 74,262 | 118,786 | ||||||
Underground | 15 | Female | 7390 | 8727 | 6633 | 4788 | Underground | 15 | Female | 10,779 | 12,295 | 10,163 | 7427 | ||
30 | 14,780 | 17,454 | 13,265 | 9576 | 30 | 21,558 | 24,590 | 20,325 | 14,854 | ||||||
60 | 29,561 | 34,909 | 26,531 | 19,152 | 60 | 43,116 | 49,180 | 40,651 | 29,708 | ||||||
90 | 44,341 | 52,363 | 39,796 | 28,727 | 90 | 64,674 | 73,771 | 60,976 | 44,562 | ||||||
15 | Male | 9107 | 10,754 | 8173 | 5900 | 15 | Male | 13,282 | 15,151 | 12,523 | 9152 | ||||
30 | 18,213 | 21,508 | 16,346 | 11,800 | 30 | 26,565 | 30,301 | 25,046 | 18,304 | ||||||
60 | 36,426 | 43,017 | 32,693 | 23,600 | 60 | 53,130 | 60,603 | 50,092 | 36,608 | ||||||
90 | 54,640 | 64,525 | 49,039 | 35,399 | 90 | 79,695 | 90,904 | 75,138 | 54,911 | ||||||
Car | 15 | Female | 8760 | 4562 | 5839 | 6100 | Car | 15 | Female | 13,319 | 6527 | 8063 | 10,907 | ||
30 | 17,519 | 9124 | 11,677 | 12,201 | 30 | 26,638 | 13,053 | 16,126 | 21,814 | ||||||
60 | 35,038 | 18,248 | 23,354 | 24,401 | 60 | 53,276 | 26,107 | 32,252 | 43,628 | ||||||
90 | 52,558 | 27,372 | 35,031 | 36,602 | 90 | 79,914 | 39,160 | 48,378 | 65,442 | ||||||
15 | Male | 10,794 | 5622 | 7195 | 7517 | 15 | Male | 16,412 | 8043 | 9936 | 13,440 | ||||
30 | 21,588 | 11,243 | 14,389 | 15,034 | 30 | 32,825 | 16,085 | 19,871 | 26,881 | ||||||
60 | 43,176 | 22,486 | 28,779 | 30,069 | 60 | 65,650 | 32,170 | 39,743 | 53,761 | ||||||
90 | 64,764 | 33,729 | 43,168 | 45,103 | 90 | 98,475 | 48,256 | 59,614 | 80,642 | ||||||
Bicycle | 15 | Female | 14,062 | 7996 | 17,024 | 10,279 | Bicycle | 15 | Female | 20,648 | 12,282 | 26,190 | 16,137 | ||
30 | 28,123 | 15,992 | 34,048 | 20,558 | 30 | 41,296 | 24,564 | 52,379 | 32,274 | ||||||
60 | 56,247 | 31,983 | 68,096 | 41,116 | 60 | 82,591 | 49,128 | 104,759 | 64,548 | ||||||
90 | 84,370 | 47,975 | 102,145 | 61,674 | 90 | 123,887 | 73,692 | 157,138 | 96,822 | ||||||
15 | Male | 16,225 | 9226 | 19,643 | 11,860 | 15 | Male | 23,824 | 14,172 | 30,219 | 18,620 | ||||
30 | 32,450 | 18,452 | 39,286 | 23,721 | 30 | 47,649 | 28,343 | 60,438 | 37,239 | ||||||
60 | 64,900 | 36,904 | 78,573 | 47,441 | 60 | 95,298 | 56,686 | 120,876 | 74,479 | ||||||
90 | 97,350 | 55,356 | 117,859 | 71,162 | 90 | 142,947 | 85,029 | 181,314 | 111,718 | ||||||
Walking | 15 | Female | 11,171 | 13,077 | 14,773 | 22,466 | Walking | 15 | Female | 16,402 | 17,652 | 23,075 | 32,460 | ||
30 | 22,341 | 26,155 | 29,545 | 44,933 | 30 | 32,803 | 35,304 | 46,150 | 64,920 | ||||||
60 | 44,682 | 52,310 | 59,091 | 89,866 | 60 | 65,607 | 70,607 | 92,301 | 129,840 | ||||||
90 | 67,023 | 78,465 | 88,636 | 134,799 | 90 | 98,410 | 105,911 | 138,451 | 194,760 | ||||||
15 | Male | 12,889 | 15,089 | 17,045 | 25,923 | 15 | Male | 18,925 | 20,368 | 26,625 | 37,454 | ||||
30 | 25,778 | 30,179 | 34,091 | 51,846 | 30 | 37,850 | 40,735 | 53,250 | 74,908 | ||||||
60 | 51,556 | 60,357 | 68,181 | 103,691 | 60 | 75,700 | 81,470 | 106,501 | 149,815 | ||||||
90 | 77,335 | 90,536 | 102,272 | 155,537 | 90 | 113,550 | 122,205 | 159,751 | 224,723 |
Comparison between MEs | Train | Underground | Car | Cycling | Walking | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PM1 | Train | 0.747 | 0.555 | 0.058 | 0.001 | |
Underground | 0.658 | 0.043 | <0.001 | |||
Car | 0.018 | <0.001 | ||||
Cycling | 0.136 | |||||
Walking | ||||||
PM2.5 | Train | 0.573 | 1.000 | 0.008 | 0.001 | |
Underground | 0.582 | 0.023 | 0.003 | |||
Car | 0.006 | 0.001 | ||||
Cycling | 0.444 | |||||
Walking | ||||||
PM4 | Train | 0.872 | 0.502 | 0.014 | 0.001 | |
Underground | 0.658 | 0.009 | <0.001 | |||
Car | 0.003 | <0.001 | ||||
Cycling | 0.271 | |||||
Walking | ||||||
PM10 | Train | 0.936 | 0.809 | 0.011 | 0.001 | |
Underground | 0.799 | 0.007 | <0.001 | |||
Car | 0.003 | <0.001 | ||||
Cycling | 0.340 | |||||
Walking |
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Borghi, F.; Fanti, G.; Cattaneo, A.; Campagnolo, D.; Rovelli, S.; Keller, M.; Spinazzè, A.; Cavallo, D.M. Estimation of the Inhaled Dose of Airborne Pollutants during Commuting: Case Study and Application for the General Population. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6066. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176066
Borghi F, Fanti G, Cattaneo A, Campagnolo D, Rovelli S, Keller M, Spinazzè A, Cavallo DM. Estimation of the Inhaled Dose of Airborne Pollutants during Commuting: Case Study and Application for the General Population. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(17):6066. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176066
Chicago/Turabian StyleBorghi, Francesca, Giacomo Fanti, Andrea Cattaneo, Davide Campagnolo, Sabrina Rovelli, Marta Keller, Andrea Spinazzè, and Domenico Maria Cavallo. 2020. "Estimation of the Inhaled Dose of Airborne Pollutants during Commuting: Case Study and Application for the General Population" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 17: 6066. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176066