Human-Elephant Conflicts and Villagers’ Attitudes and Knowledge in the Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Methods
3. Results
3.1. The Present Situation of the Human–Elephant Conflict
3.1.1. Types of Human–Elephant Conflict
3.1.2. Asian Elephants Damage
3.1.3. Compensation for Accidents Associated with the Asian Elephants
3.2. Villagers’ Attitudes and Knowledge
3.2.1. Villagers’ Attitudes toward Asian Elephants
3.2.2. Villagers’ Perception of Population Change of Asian Elephants
3.2.3. Villagers’ Selection Preference for Mitigating Human–Elephant Conflict
4. Discussion
4.1. Characteristics of Human–Elephant Conflict
4.2. Causes of Human–Elephant Conflict
4.3. Problems in Compensation for Human–Elephant Conflict
4.4. Countermeasures of Human–Elephant Conflict Mitigation
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Ethical Statement
References
- Samojlik, T.; Selva, N.; Daszkiewicz, P.; Fedotova, A.; Wajrak, A.; Kuijper, D.P.J. Lessons From Białowieża Forest on the History of Protection and the World’s First Reintroduction of a Large Carnivore. Conserv. Biol. 2018, 32, 808–816. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Foley, J.A.; DeFries, R.; Asner, G.P.; Barford, C.; Bonan, G.; Carpenter, S.R.; Chapin, F.S.; Coe, M.T.; Daily, G.C.; Gibbs, H.K.; et al. Global consequences of land use. Science 2005, 309, 570–574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Rushton, S.P.; Wood, D.J.A.; Lurz, P.W.W.; Koprowski, J.L. Modelling the Population Dynamics of the Mt. Graham Red Squirrel: Can We Predict Its Future in a Changing Environment With Multiple Threats? Biol. Conserv. 2006, 131, 121–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fahrig, L. Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Biodiversity. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 2003, 34, 487–515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Strum, S.C. The Development of Primate Raiding: Implications for Management and Conservation. Int. J. Primatol. 2010, 31, 133–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Miller, J.R.B.; Jhala, Y.V.; Jena, J. Livestock Losses and Hotspots of Attack From Tigers and Leopards in Kanha Tiger Reserve, Central India. Reg. Environ. Chang. 2016, 16, 17–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Proctor, M.F.; Kasworm, W.F.; Annis, K.M.; MacHutchon, A.G.; Teisberg, J.E.; Radandt, T.G.; Servheen, C. Conservation of Threatened Canada–USA Trans-Border Grizzly Bears Linked to Comprehensive Conflict Reduction. Hum. Wildl. Interact. 2018, 12, 348–372. [Google Scholar]
- Dickman, A.J. Complexities of Conflict: The Importance of Considering Social Factors for Effectively Resolving Human-Wildlife Conflict. Anim. Conserv. 2010, 13, 458–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kansky, R.; Knight, A.T. Key Factors Driving Attitudes Towards Large Mammals in Conflict With Humans. Biol. Conserv. 2014, 179, 93–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Redpath, S.; Gutiérrez, R.J.; Wood, K.; Young, J. Conflicts in Conservation: Navigating Towards Solutions; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Messmer, T.A. The Emergence of Human–Wildlife Conflict Management: Turning Challenges Into Opportunities. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2000, 45, 97–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, J.; Yin, H.; Wang, D.J.; Jiagong, Z.L.; Lu, Z. Human-Snow Leopard Conflicts in the Sanjiangyuan Region of the Tibetan Plateau. Biol. Conserv. 2013, 166, 118–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, W.W.; Liu, P.; Guo, X.M.; Wang, L.X.; Wang, Q.Y.; Yu, Y.; Dai, Y.C.; Li, L.; Zhang, L. Human-Elephant Conflict in Xishuangbanna Prefecture, China: Distribution, Diffusion, and Mitigation. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 2018, 16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sitienei, A.J.; Jiwen, G.; Ngene, S.M. Assessing the Cost of Living With Elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Areas Adjacent to Meru National Park, Kenya. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 2014, 60, 323–330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schley, L.; Dufrêne, M.; Krier, A.; Frantz, A.C. Patterns of Crop Damage by Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) in Luxembourg Over a 10-Year Period. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 2008, 54, 589–599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guerra, A.S. Wolves of the Sea: Managing Human-Wildlife Conflict in an Increasingly Tense Ocean. Mar. Policy 2019, 99, 369–373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bagchi, S. Conserving Large Carnivores Amidst Human-Wildlife Conflict: The Scope of Ecological Theory to Guide Conservation Practice. Food Webs 2019, 18, e00108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaartinen, S.; Luoto, M.; Kojola, I. Carnivore-Livestock Conflicts: Determinants of Wolf (Canis lupus) Depredation on Sheep Farms in Finland. Biodivers. Conserv. 2009, 18, 3503–3517. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, L.; Wang, N. An Initial Study on Habitat Conservation of Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus), With a Focus on Human Elephant Conflict in Simao, China. Biol. Conserv. 2003, 112, 453–459. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alexander, J.; Chen, P.; Damerell, P.; Youkui, W.; Hughes, J.; Shi, K.; Riordan, P. Human Wildlife Conflict Involving Large Carnivores in Qilianshan, China and the Minimal Paw-Print of Snow Leopards. Biol. Conserv. 2015, 187, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Buchholtz, E.K.; Stronza, A.; Songhurst, A.; McCulloch, G.; Fitzgerald, L.A. Using Landscape Connectivity to Predict Human-Wildlife Conflict. Biol. Conserv. 2020, 248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, B.; Xie, Y.; Zhang, T.; Zeng, W.; Hu, G. Identification of Conflict Between Wildlife Living Spaces and Human Activity Spaces and Adjustments In/Around Protected Areas Under Climate Change: A Case Study in the Three-River Source Region. J. Environ. Manag. 2020, 262, 110322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yang, H.; Lupi, F.; Zhang, J.; Liu, J. Hidden Cost of Conservation: A Demonstration Using Losses From Human-Wildlife Conflicts Under a Payments for Ecosystem Services Program. Ecol. Econ. 2020, 169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mumby, H.S.; Plotnik, J.M. Taking the Elephants’ Perspective: Remembering Elephant Behavior, Cognition and Ecology in Human-Elephant Conflict Mitigation. Front. Ecol. Evol. 2018, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zhang, L.; Ma, L.C.; Feng, L.M. New Challenges Facing Traditional Nature Reserves: Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Conservation in China. Integr. Zool. 2006, 1, 179–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liu, P.; Wen, H.; Lin, L.; Liu, J.; Zhang, L. Habitat Evaluation for Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) in Lincang: Conservation Planning for an Extremely Small Population of Elephants in China. Biol. Conserv. 2016, 198, 113–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, L. Research on Asian Elephant Conservation in China; Science Press: Beijing, China, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Chen, Y.; Marino, J.; Chen, Y.; Tao, Q.; Sullivan, C.D.; Shi, K.; Macdonald, D.W. Predicting Hotspots of Human-Elephant Conflict to Inform Mitigation Strategies in Xishuangbanna, Southwest China. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0162035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, P.; Wen, H.; Harich, F.K.; He, C.; Wang, L.; Guo, X.; Zhao, J.; Luo, A.; Yang, H.; Sun, X.; et al. Conflict Between Conservation and Development: Cash Forest Encroachment in Asian Elephant Distributions. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 6404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Min, S.; Huang, J.; Waibel, H.; Yang, X.; Cadisch, G. Rubber Boom, Land Use Change and the Implications for Carbon Balances in Xishuangbanna, Southwest China. Ecol. Econ. 2019, 156, 57–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, J.; Coomes, D.A.; Gibson, L.; Hu, G.; Liu, J.; Luo, Y.; Wu, C.; Yu, M. Forest Fragmentation in China and Its Effect on Biodiversity. Biol. Rev. 2019, 94, 1636–1657. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Calabrese, A.; Calabrese, J.M.; Songer, M.; Wegmann, M.; Hedges, S.; Rose, R.; Leimgruber, P. Conservation Status of Asian Elephants: The Influence of Habitat and Governance. Biodivers. Conserv. 2017, 26, 2067–2081. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, S.; Dong, Y.; Cheng, F.; Zhang, Y.; Hou, X.; Dong, S.; Coxixo, A. Effects of Road Network on Asian Elephant Habitat and Connectivity Between the Nature Reserves in Xishuangbanna, Southwest China. J. Nat. Conserv. 2017, 38, 11–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- He, Q.; Wu, Z.; Zhou, W.; Dong, R. Perception and Attitudes of Local Communities Towards Wild Elephant-Related Problems and Conservation in Xishuangbanna, Southwestern China. Chin. Geogr. Sci. 2011, 21, 629–636. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frank, J.; Johansson, M.; Flykt, A. Public Attitude Towards the Implementation of Management Actions Aimed at Reducing Human Fear of Brown Bears and Wolves. Wildl. Biol. 2015, 21, 122–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, S.; Deng, L.; Dong, S.; Zhao, Q.; Yang, J.; Wang, C. Landscape Connectivity Dynamics Based on Network Analysis in the Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve, China. Acta Oecol. 2014, 55, 66–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Drury, R.; Homewood, K.; Randall, S. Less Is More: The Potential of Qualitative Approaches in Conservation Research. Anim. Conserv. 2011, 14, 18–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rust, N.A.; Abrams, A.; Challender, D.W.S.; Chapron, G.; Ghoddousi, A.; Glikman, J.A.; Gowan, C.H.; Hughes, C.; Rastogi, A.; Said, A.; et al. Quantity Does Not Always Mean Quality: The Importance of Qualitative Social Science in Conservation Research. Soc. Nat. Resour. 2017, 30, 1304–1310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, W.H.; Wang, M.L.; Xu, S.Y. Current Situation and Policy Analysis of the Loss and Compensation Caused by the Asian Elephants in China. Ecol. Econ. 2017, 6, 140–145. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Chen, M.Y.; Yang, S.J.; Liu, L.Y.; Dong, Y.H.; Yang, Z.B. Chinese Asian Elephant and Human Relations. For. Inventory Plan. 2006, 031, 114–117. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Huijun, G.; Padoch, C.; Coffey, K.; Aiguo, C.; Yongneng, F. Economic Development, Land Use and Biodiversity Change in the Tropical Mountains of Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, Southwest China. Environ. Sci. Policy 2002, 5, 471–479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luo, S.L.; Wang, L.X.; Guo, X.M. Traditional Culture and Biodiversity Protection of Dai Nationality in Xishuangbanna. J. Anhui. Agric. Sci. 2019, 47, 68–70. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Li, J. Research on the Relationship between Religious Ecosystem and Society in Xishuangbanna. Ph.D. Thesis, Central University for Nationalities, Beijing, China, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Yu, K. Life Customs and Traditional Culture of Dai Nationality in Xishuangbanna; Yunnan People’s Publishing House: Yunnan, China, 2006. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Dai, Y.C.; Xue, Y.D.; Chen, Y.F.; Zhang, Y.G.; Zhang, L.S.; Zhang, X.; Luo, P.; Li, D.Q. The Human-Bear Conflicts and Herder Attitudes and Knowledge in the Yangtze River Zone of Sanjiangyuan National Park. Acta Ecol. Sin. 2019, 39, 49–57. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Karamanlidis, A.A.; Sanopoulos, A.; Georgiadis, L.; Zedrosser, A. Structural and Economic Aspects of Human-Bear Conflicts in Greece. Ursus 2011, 22, 141–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karanth, K.K.; Gopalaswamy, A.M.; Prasad, P.K.; Dasgupta, S. Patterns of Human–Wildlife Conflicts and Compensation: Insights From Western Ghats Protected Areas. Biol. Conserv. 2013, 166, 175–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bulte, E.; Rondeau, D. Compensation for Wildlife Damages: Habitat Conversion, Species Preservation and Local Welfare. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 2007, 54, 311–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, F. Asian Black Bear Studies: Spatial Distribution and Human Bear Relationship; China Forestry Press: Beijing, China, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Vasudev, D.; Goswami, V.R.; Hait, P.; Sharma, P.; Joshi, B.; Karpate, Y.; Prasad, P.K. Conservation Opportunities and Challenges Emerge From Assessing Nuanced Stakeholder Attitudes Towards the Asian Elephant in Tea Estates of Assam, Northeast India. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 2020, 22, e00936. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sun, G.; Wang, Z.T. A Preliminary Study on the Historical Decline of Wild Elephant in China and Its Relationship With Population Pressure. J. Northeast. For. Univ. 1998, 026, 47–50. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Lin, L.; Feng, L.; Pan, W.; Guo, X.; Zhao, J.; Luo, A.; Zhang, L. Habitat Selection and the Change in Distribution of Asian Elephants in Mengyang Protected Area, Yunnan, China. Mamm. Res. 2008, 53, 365–374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sukumar, R. Ecology of the Asian Elephant in Southern India. I. Movement and Habitat Utilization Patterns. J. Trop. Ecol. 1989, 5, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, J.; Deng, X.; Zhang, L.; Bai, Z. Diet Composition and Foraging Ecology of Asian Elephants in Shangyong, Xishuangbanna, China. Acta Ecol. Sin. 2006, 26, 309–316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xu, Z.F. Ecological Effects and Protection Strategies of Asian Elephant and Bamboo/Banana. J. Ecol. 2004, 4, 131–134. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Hammond, J.; van Wijk, M.T.; Smajgl, A.; Ward, J.; Pagella, T.; Xu, J.; Su, Y.; Yi, Z.; Harrison, R.D. Farm Types and Farmer Motivations to Adapt: Implications for Design of Sustainable Agricultural Interventions in the Rubber Plantations of South West China. Agric. Syst. 2017, 154, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jin, L. A Study on the Causes and Countermeasures of Asian Elephants in China. Chin. J. Wildlife. 2008, 4, 220–223. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Gubbi, S. Patterns and Correlates of Human–Elephant Conflict Around a South Indian Reserve. Biol. Conserv. 2012, 148, 88–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, S.; Yi, Z.-F.; Campos-Arceiz, A.; Chen, M.-Y.; Webb, E.L. Developing a Spatially Explicit, Sustainable and Risk-Based Insurance Scheme to Mitigate Human–Wildlife Conflict. Biol. Conserv. 2013, 168, 31–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Miller, J.R.B. Mapping Attack Hotspots to Mitigate Human-Carnivore Conflict: Approaches and Applications of Spatial Predation Risk Modeling. Biodivers. Conserv. 2015, 24, 2887–2911. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Massei, G.; Cowan, D. Fertility Control to Mitigate Human-Wildlife Conflicts: A Review. Wildl. Res. 2014, 41, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- King, L.E.; Lala, F.; Nzumu, H.; Mwambingu, E.; Douglas-Hamilton, I. Beehive fences as a multidimensional conflict-mitigation tool for farmers coexisting with elephants. Conserv. Biol. 2017, 31, 743–752. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ngama, S.; Korte, L.; Bindelle, J.; Vermeulen, C.; Poulsen, J.R. How Bees Deter Elephants: Beehive Trials with Forest Elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) in Gabon. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0155690. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Type of Crops Planted | Compensation Standard (¥) | ||
---|---|---|---|
2011 | 2012 | 2013–2018 | |
Rice/Mu | 500 | 500 | 500 |
Rice (on the hillside)/Mu | / | / | 400 |
Corn/Mu | 400 | 400 | 400 |
Buckwheat/Mu | 400 | 400 | 400 |
Soybean/Mu | 250 | 250 | 250 |
Peanut/Mu | 400 | 400 | 400 |
Wax gourd/Mu | / | / | 300 |
Watermelon/Mu | / | / | 500 |
Sugarcane/Mu | 700 | 700 | 700 |
Rubber/Plant | 10 (<5 years) | 10 (<5 years) | 15 |
20 (≥5 years) | 20 (≥5 years) | ||
Agilawood, Nut/Plant | 2 | 2 | 10 |
Tea/Plant | 5 | 5 | 2 |
Coffee/Plant | 10 | 10 | 5 |
Banana/Plant | 5 | 5 | 10 |
Pine/Plant | 5 | 5 | 10 |
Fruit tree/Plant | 10 | 10 | 20 |
Variable and Description | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|
Gender in% | ||
Female | 40 | 18.43% |
Male | 177 | 81.57% |
Age in% | ||
<35 Years | 43 | 19.82% |
35—55 Years | 155 | 71.43% |
>55 Years | 19 | 8.76% |
Education level | ||
<Primary school | 52 | 23.96% |
≥Primary school | 165 | 76.04% |
Form of Occupation | ||
Farmer | 157 | 72.35% |
Other | 60 | 27.65% |
Residence (township) | ||
Dadugang | 12 | 5.53% |
Shangyong | 19 | 8.76% |
Guanlei | 17 | 7.83% |
Jinuo | 13 | 5.99% |
Jingha | 14 | 6.45% |
Mengban | 26 | 11.98% |
Menghai | 37 | 17.05% |
Mengla | 35 | 16.13% |
Mangman | 23 | 10.60% |
Mengzhe | 21 | 9.68% |
Compensation Content | Compensation Standard (¥) | Rate of Rise | |
---|---|---|---|
2008 | 2013 | ||
Human killed | 80,000 | 200,000 | 150% |
Human injured | Calculated according to the actual expenses incurred | / | |
Rice/Mu | 12 | 500 | 317% |
Corn/Mu | 75 | 400 | 433% |
Soybean/Mu | 75 | 250 | 233% |
Peanut/Mu | 75 | 400 | 433% |
Sugarcane/Mu | 105 | 700 | 567% |
Rubber/Plant | 2 | 15 | 650% |
Tea/Plant | 0.4 | 2 | 400% |
Fruit tree/Plant | 10 | 20 | 100% |
Pine/Plant | 0.5 | 2 | 300% |
Coffee/Plant | 0.5 | 5 | 900% |
Banana/Plant | 1 | 10 | 900% |
Variables | Categories | Number of Likes for Elephants | Number of Dislikes for Elephants | χ2 | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | Male | 106 | 71 | 7.246 | 0.007 ** |
Female | 33 | 7 | - | - | |
Age | <35 years | 30 | 13 | 0.762 | 0.683 |
35–55 years | 97 | 58 | - | - | |
>55 years | 12 | 7 | - | - | |
Education level | <Primary school | 32 | 20 | 0.188 | 0.664 |
≥Primary school | 107 | 58 | - | - | |
Occupation | Farmer | 92 | 65 | 7.343 | 0.007 ** |
Other | 47 | 13 | - | - | |
The crops have beeneaten by elephants | Yes | 68 | 63 | 21.182 | 0.000 ** |
No | 71 | 15 | - | - | |
Livestock attacked experience | Yes | 8 | 6 | 2.921 | 0.087 |
No | 133 | 70 | - | - | |
Attacked by elephants | Yes | 3 | 2 | 0.037 | 0.848 |
No | 136 | 76 | - | - | |
Seen elephant | Seen | 97 | 65 | 4.847 | 0.028 * |
Have not seen | 42 | 13 | - | - |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Su, K.; Ren, J.; Yang, J.; Hou, Y.; Wen, Y. Human-Elephant Conflicts and Villagers’ Attitudes and Knowledge in the Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 8910. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238910
Su K, Ren J, Yang J, Hou Y, Wen Y. Human-Elephant Conflicts and Villagers’ Attitudes and Knowledge in the Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(23):8910. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238910
Chicago/Turabian StyleSu, Kaiwen, Jie Ren, Jie Yang, Yilei Hou, and Yali Wen. 2020. "Human-Elephant Conflicts and Villagers’ Attitudes and Knowledge in the Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve, China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 23: 8910. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238910