The Effects of Family Financial Stress and Primary Caregivers’ Levels of Acculturation on Children’s Emotional and Behavioral Problems among Humanitarian Refugees in Australia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Data Sources
2.2. Sampling and Study Participants
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Children’s Emotional and Behavioral Problems
2.3.2. Family Financial Stress
2.3.3. Primary Caregivers’ Acculturation Level
2.3.4. Primary Caregivers’ Psychological Distress
2.3.5. Parenting Style
2.3.6. Covariates
2.4. Statistical Analyses
2.5. Ethics
3. Results
3.1. Descriptives
3.2. Multilevel Structural Equation Modeling Analysis
3.3. Sensitivity Analysis
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Primary Caregivers | Refugee Children | t | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aged 11–17 (n = 482) | ||||
Total difficulties score | 8.85 (5.49) | 8.97 (5.31) | 0.329 | 0.742 |
Emotional symptoms score | 2.25 (2.24) | 2.62 (2.20) | 2.453 | 0.014 |
Conduct problems score | 1.32 (1.54) | 1.45 (1.53) | 1.258 | 0.209 |
Hyperactivity score | 2.85 (2.15) | 2.55 (1.71) | −2.342 | 0.019 |
Peer problems score | 2.42 (1.50) | 2.36 (1.67) | −0.558 | 0.577 |
Variables | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 5. | 6. | 7. | 8. | 9. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Financial stress | 1.000 | ||||||||
2. English proficiency | −0.002 | 1.000 | |||||||
3. Self-sufficiency | 0.019 | 0.490 *** | 1.000 | ||||||
4. Social interaction | 0.072 | 0.323 *** | 0.538 *** | 1.000 | |||||
5. Self-identity | −0.035 | 0.037 | 0.180 ** | 0.273 *** | 1.000 | ||||
6. Psychological distress | 0.290 *** | −0.139 ** | −0.070 | −0.133 * | −0.206 ** | 1.000 | |||
7. Warm parenting | −0.061 | 0.215 ** | 0.223 ** | 0.255 ** | 0.244 ** | −0.056 | 1.000 | ||
8. Hostile parenting | 0.084 | −0.071 | −0.103 | −0.176 * | −0.226 ** | 0.185 ** | −0.198 | 1.000 | |
9. Emotional and behavioral problems | 0.148 * | −0.138 * | −0.116 | −0.178 ** | −0.092 | 0.355 *** | −0.152 | 0.565 *** | 1.000 |
Pathways | β | 95% CI | |
---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | ||
Extended FSM | |||
Family financial stress | |||
a. Financial stress → Psychological distress → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | 0.023 | 0.002 | 0.054 |
b. Financial stress → Psychological distress → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | 0.060 | 0.016 | 0.119 |
c. Financial stress → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | 0.033 | -0.040 | 0.117 |
English proficiency | |||
a. English proficiency → Psychological distress → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.025 | −0.071 | 0.001 |
b. English proficiency → Psychological distress → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.065 | −0.165 | −0.0001 |
c. English proficiency → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.020 | −0.218 | 0.179 |
Self-sufficiency | |||
a. Self-sufficiency → Psychological distress → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | 0.015 | −0.020 | 0.066 |
b. Self-sufficiency → Psychological distress → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | 0.039 | −0.052 | 0.153 |
c. Self-sufficiency → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | 0.061 | −0.181 | 0.325 |
Social interaction | |||
a. Social interaction → Psychological distress → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.025 | −0.099 | 0.026 |
b. Social interaction → Psychological distress → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.065 | −0.237 | 0.068 |
c. Social interaction → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.216 | −0.592 | 0.105 |
Self-identity | |||
a. Self-identity → Psychological distress → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.052 | −0.136 | −0.004 |
b. Self-identity → Psychological distress → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.139 | −0.311 | −0.023 |
c. Self-identity → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.276 | −0.653 | 0.034 |
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Variables | Mean (SD)/n (%) | Cronbach’s | Range/Valuation | Missing Value/n |
---|---|---|---|---|
Level-1 (n = 658) | ||||
Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | 0.71 | |||
SDQ total difficulties score | 9.03 (5.60) | 0–29 | 0 | |
SDQ emotional symptoms score | 2.24 (2.25) | 0–10 | 0 | |
SDQ conduct problems score | 1.38 (1.57) | 0–10 | 0 | |
SDQ hyperactivity score | 3.02 (2.19) | 0–10 | 0 | |
SDQ peer problems score | 2.40 (1.55) | 0–8 | 0 | |
Parenting style | ||||
Warm parenting | 0.75 | |||
Has warm close times with child | 4.34 (0.88) | 1 = never/almost never; 2 = rarely; 3 = sometimes; 4 = often; 5 = always/almost always. | 17 | |
Enjoys doing things with and listening to child | 4.33 (0.86) | 22 | ||
Talk about what is going on in their life | 3.56 (1.30) | 34 | ||
Is good at getting child to do what is told | 3.75 (1.20) | 33 | ||
Feels close to child when child is happy and upset | 4.21 (1.07) | 30 | ||
Hostile parenting | 0.73 | |||
Has been angry with child | 2.05 (1.06) | 1 = never/almost never; 2 = rarely; 3 = sometimes; 4 = often; 5 = always/almost always. | 28 | |
Has raised voice or shouted at child | 1.98 (0.97) | 28 | ||
Gets on my nerves when child cries | 2.28 (1.35) | 38 | ||
Has lost temper with child | 1.58 (0.93) | 27 | ||
Has left child alone in bedroom when upset | 1.44 (0.92) | 29 | ||
Level-2 (n = 410) | ||||
Primary caregivers’ acculturation level | 0.91 | |||
English proficiency | 0.94 | |||
Understand spoken English | 2.20 (0.71) | 1 = not at all; 2 = not well; 3 = well; 4 = very well. | 11 | |
Speak English | 2.04 (0.74) | 6 | ||
Read English | 2.15 (0.82) | 7 | ||
Write English | 2.07 (0.77) | 8 | ||
Self-sufficiency to participate in the life in Australia | 0.92 | |||
Look for a job | 1.76 (0.92) | 1 = would not know at all; 2 = would know a little; 3 = would know fairly well; 4 = would know very well. | 4 | |
Find a school or childcare for children | 2.31 (1.04) | 22 | ||
Use public transport | 2.93 (1.04) | 4 | ||
Get help in an emergency | 2.68 (1.06) | 3 | ||
Use bank services | 2.23 (1.08) | 4 | ||
Find out what government services and benefits are available | 2.30 (1.04) | 4 | ||
Find out about your rights | 2.24 (1.05) | 4 | ||
Get help from the police | 2.59 (1.09) | 3 | ||
Social interaction | 0.80 | |||
Make friends in Australia | 2.51 (0.76) | 1 = very hard; 2 = hard; 3 = easy; 4 = very easy. | 23 | |
Understand Australian ways/culture | 2.53 (0.76) | 20 | ||
Talk to Australian neighbors | 2.30 (0.81) | 27 | ||
Self-identity | 0.54 | |||
Feel welcome in Australia | 3.57 (0.67) | 1 = hardly ever; 2 = some of the time; 3 = most of the time; 4 = always. | 3 | |
Feel part of the Australian community | 3.38 (0.86) | 2 | ||
Experience discrimination in Australia n (%) | 2 | |||
Yes | 24 (5.85) | |||
No | 384 (93.66) | |||
Financial stress | 1.22 (1.51) | 0–6 | 5 | |
Psychological distress | 14.31 (6.01) | 0.90 | 6–30 | 8 |
Characteristics | n (%) | Mean (SD) |
---|---|---|
Primary caregivers’ characteristics (n = 410) | ||
Age (years) | 40.1 (8.8) | |
Gender | ||
Male | 98 (23.9) | |
Female | 312 (76.1) | |
Years of education | ||
Never attended school | 93 (22.7) | |
≤6 years of schooling | 80 (19.8) | |
≥7 years of schooling | 175 (43.2) | |
Trade or technical qualification beyond school | 21 (5.2) | |
University degree | 36 (8.9) | |
Household structure | ||
Single parent family | 103 (25.1) | |
Couple family | 301 (73.4) | |
Children’s characteristics (n = 658) | ||
Age (years) | 12.0 (3.5) | |
Gender | ||
Male | 354 (53.8) | |
Female | 304 (46.2) | |
Physical health | 4.1 (1.0) | |
Poor | 16 (2.4) | |
Fair | 31 (4.7) | |
Good | 125 (19.0) | |
Very good | 218 (33.1) | |
Excellent | 266 (40.4) | |
Overall achievement at school | 3.8 (1.0) | |
Below average | 39 (5.9) | |
Average | 252 (38.3) | |
Above average | 172 (26.1) | |
Excellent | 186 (28.3) | |
Experiences of pre-migration trauma | ||
Yes | 189 (28.7) | |
No | 457 (69.5) |
Model | χ2 | d.f. | χ2/d.f. | CFI | TLI | RMSEA | SRMR |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Basic FSM | 242.442 | 105 | 2.309 | 0.880 | 0.844 | 0.045 | 0.079 |
Extended FSM | 751.0455 | 437 | 1.720 | 0.939 | 0.928 | 0.034 | 0.062 |
Pathways | 95% CI | ||
---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | ||
Extended FSM | |||
Family financial stress | |||
a. Financial stress → Psychological distress → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | 0.021 | 0.001 | 0.053 |
b. Financial stress → Psychological distress → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | 0.061 | 0.016 | 0.119 |
c. Financial stress → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | 0.037 | −0.038 | 0.125 |
English proficiency | |||
a. English proficiency → Psychological distress → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.023 | −0.071 | 0.002 |
b. English proficiency → Psychological distress → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.067 | −0.165 | −0.001 |
c. English proficiency → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.034 | −0.238 | 0.165 |
Self-sufficiency | |||
a. Self-sufficiency → Psychological distress → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | 0.014 | −0.020 | 0.065 |
b. Self-sufficiency → Psychological distress → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | 0.039 | −0.053 | 0.153 |
c. Self-sufficiency → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | 0.058 | −0.184 | 0.324 |
Social interaction | |||
a. Social interaction → Psychological distress → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.023 | −0.097 | 0.026 |
b. Social interaction → Psychological distress → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.066 | −0.236 | 0.068 |
c. Social interaction → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.225 | −0.603 | 0.094 |
Self-identity | |||
a. Self-identity → Psychological distress → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.049 | −0.136 | −0.001 |
b. Self-identity → Psychological distress → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.141 | −0.312 | −0.023 |
c. Self-identity → Hostile parenting → Children’s emotional and behavioral problems | −0.284 | −0.675 | 0.035 |
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Yu, L.; Renzaho, A.M.N.; Shi, L.; Ling, L.; Chen, W. The Effects of Family Financial Stress and Primary Caregivers’ Levels of Acculturation on Children’s Emotional and Behavioral Problems among Humanitarian Refugees in Australia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2716. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082716
Yu L, Renzaho AMN, Shi L, Ling L, Chen W. The Effects of Family Financial Stress and Primary Caregivers’ Levels of Acculturation on Children’s Emotional and Behavioral Problems among Humanitarian Refugees in Australia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(8):2716. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082716
Chicago/Turabian StyleYu, Linlin, Andre M.N. Renzaho, Lishuo Shi, Li Ling, and Wen Chen. 2020. "The Effects of Family Financial Stress and Primary Caregivers’ Levels of Acculturation on Children’s Emotional and Behavioral Problems among Humanitarian Refugees in Australia" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 8: 2716. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082716