Water Quality Assessment and Evaluation of Human Health Risk in Mutangwi River, Limpopo Province, South Africa
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Sampling
2.3. Samples Analysis
2.3.1. Physiochemical Parameters
2.3.2. Trace Metals
2.3.3. Anions
2.3.4. Microbiological Analysis
2.4. Water Quality Index (WQI)
2.5. Quantitative Health Risk Assessment
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Physical Parameters
3.2. Chemical Parameters
Major Cations and Anions
3.3. Trace Metals Concentration
3.4. Microbiological Parameters
3.5. Water Quality Index
3.6. Human Health Risk Assessment
3.6.1. Noncarcinogenic risk
3.6.2. Carcinogenic Risk (CR)
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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WQI | Quality Status | Possible Use | Grading |
---|---|---|---|
50 | Excellent water quality | Domestic purposes | A |
50–100 | Good water quality | Any purpose without treatment | B |
100–200 | Poor water quality | Irrigation and partial body contact | C |
200–300 | Very poor water quality | Irrigation and industrial, domestic | D |
>300 | Unsuitable for drinking purposes | Proper treatment required before use | E |
Parameter | Unit | Child | Adult |
---|---|---|---|
Exposure Frequency (EF) | Day/year | 365 | 365 |
Body Weight (BW) | kg | 15 | 70 |
Ingestion Rate (IR) or Daily intake (DI) | L/day | 1.8 | 2.2 |
Exposure Duration (ED) | Years | 6 | 70 |
Skin surface Area (SA) | 6600 | 18,000 | |
Exposure Time (ET) | Hours/day | 1 | 0.58 |
Conversion Factor (CF) | 0.001 | 0.001 | |
Averaging Time (AT) | Days | 365 × 6 | 365 × 70 |
Particular Emission Factor (PEM) | 1.3 × 109 | 1.3 × 103 |
Parameters | Upstream Average and SD | Midstream Average and SD | Downstream Average and SD | WHO [25] | SANS [26] | Limit of Agriculture Water Use [28] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Livestock | Irrigation | Aquaculture | ||||||
Temperature (°C) | 18.18 ± 2.43 | 18.69 ± 1.44 | 18.08 ± 2.29 | <25 | <25 | |||
pH | 7.03 ± 0.13 | 7.15 ± 0.4 | 7.08 ± 0.19 | 6.5–8.5 | 6.5–9.5 | n/a | 6.5–8.4 | 6.5–9.0 |
Salinity (mg/L) | 83.89 ± 25.15 | 110.67 ± 6.69 | 133.52 ± 45.04 | 600–900 | <1500 | n/a | n/a | n/a |
TDS (mg/L) | 126.37 ± 38.61 | 166.01 ± 7.07 | 167.5 ± 19.56 | 0–400 | ≤1200 | 0–3000 | n/a | n/a |
EC (µs/cm) | 182.25 ± 51.65 | 235.83 ± 12.97 | 233.17 ± 2.51 | 600.01 | ≤1700 | n/a | 0–3000 | n/a |
Turbidity (NTU) | 5.54 ± 0.50 | 3.87 ± 2.54 | 3.965 ± 1.73 | <1 | <1 | n/a | n/a | 25 |
Rivers | E. coli (cfu/100 mL) | Enterococci (cfu/100 mL) | Provinces | Year | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Olifants River | 34–1599 | 1620–2760 | Mpumalanga | 2012 | [46] |
Tyume River | 100–16,000 | 33–5100 | Eastern Cape | 2013 | [47] |
Msunduzi River | 1–39 | 1–79 | Limpopo | 2013 | [48] |
Buffalo River | 0–190 | 0–5,300,000 | KwaZulu Natal | 2013 | [49] |
Klip and Vaal Rivers | >5 | >40 | Gauteng | 2014 | [50] |
Eerste Rivers | 5–100 | 17–510 | Western Cape | 2015 | [51] |
Mooi River | 61–548 | 74–870 | North West | 2016 | [52] |
Mvudi River | 1650–4767 | 950–11,533 | Limpopo | 2016 | [40] |
Apies River | 3.9 | 3.97 | Gauteng | 2017 | [53] |
Luvuvhu River | >300–>400 | 19,100–25,000 | Limpopo | 2017 | [45] |
Mooder River | 01–62 | 12–104 | Free state | 2018 | [54] |
Nzhelele River | 100–57,000 | 100–80,000 | Limpopo | 2018 | [6] |
Mutoti River | 29.2–57.1 | 20–2180 | Limpopo | 2020 | [55] |
Umhlangane River | 246 | 377 | KwaZulu Natal | 2021 | [56] |
Mutangwi River | 814.5–2169 | 333–9396 | Limpopo | 2021 | Current study |
Parameters | ) | upstream | Midstream | Downstream | Upstream | Midstream | Downstream | WQI (Mean) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | 6.5–8.5 | 4 | 0.0714 | 93.73 | 95.33 | 94.40 | 6.64 | 6.68 | 6.74 | 6.69 |
TDS (mg/L) | 500 | 4 | 0.0714 | 25.27 | 33.20 | 33.5 | 1.83 | 2.37 | 2.34 | 2.18 |
EC (µs/cm) | 600.01 | 4 | 0.0714 | 30.37 | 39.30 | 38.86 | 2.81 | 3.8 | 2.77 | 3.12 |
Salinity | 600 | 3 | 0.0535 | 13.98 | 18.4 | 22.2 | 0.075 | 0.984 | 1.19 | 0.74 |
Temperature | 25 | 2 | 0.0357 | 72.72 | 74.76 | 72.32 | 2.59 | 2.66 | 2.5 | 2.58 |
Fluoride (mg/L) | 1.0 | 4 | 0.0714 | 27.0 | 19.0 | 43.0 | 1.92 | 1.35 | 3.0 | 2.09 |
Chloride (mg/L) | 250 | 3 | 0.0535 | 20.83 | 25.72 | 35.44 | 1.11 | 1.38 | 21.89 | 8.13 |
Nitrate (mg/L) | 45 | 5 | 0.0892 | 4.77 | 10.97 | 15.51 | 0.42 | 0.97 | 1.38 | 0.92 |
Sulphate (mg/L) | 200 | 3 | 0.0535 | 1.47 | 1.23 | 1.34 | 0.15 | 0.126 | 0.14 | 0.14 |
Fe (mg/L) | 0.3 | 3 | 0.0535 | 66.66 | 99.9 | 60 | 3.56 | 5.3 | 3.21 | 4.02 |
Ca (mg/L) | 75 | 2 | 0.0357 | 2.68 | 8.5 | 10.27 | 0.09 | 0.30 | 0.36 | 0.25 |
Mg (mg/L) | 30 | 2 | 0.0357 | 19.77 | 29.4 | 34.13 | 0.71 | 1.04 | 1.21 | 0.99 |
Na (mg/L) | 100 | 3 | 0.0535 | 9.08 | 15.32 | 17.55 | 0.48 | 0.81 | 0.93 | 0.74 |
Pb (mg/L) | 0.01 | 5 | 0.0892 | 500 | 600 | 700 | 44.6 | 53.52 | 62.44 | 53.52 |
Cd (mg/L) | 0.005 | 5 | 0.0892 | 200 | 400 | 400 | 17.84 | 35.68 | 35.68 | 29.73 |
56 | 1.00 | 84.82 | 116.97 | 145.78 | 115.86 |
Parameters | Temp. (°C) | pH | Salinity | TDS | EC | Turb. | F− | Cl− | NO3− | PO43− | SO42− | E. coli | Enterococci | Fe | Mn | Pb | Ca | Mg | Na | Cd |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Temp. (°C) | 1 | |||||||||||||||||||
pH | 0.83 | 1 | ||||||||||||||||||
Salinity (mg/L) | −0.11 | 0.45 | 1 | |||||||||||||||||
TDS (mg/L) | 0.33 | 0.79 | 0.9 | 1 | ||||||||||||||||
EC (µs/cm) | 0.4 | 0.83 | 0.86 | 0.99 | 1 | |||||||||||||||
Turb. (NTU) | −0.41 | −0.84 | −0.86 | −0.99 | −0.99 | 1 | ||||||||||||||
F− (mg/L) | −0.85 | −0.41 | 0.61 | 0.22 | 0.14 | −0.139 | 1 | |||||||||||||
Cl− (mg/L) | −0.36 | 0.23 | 0.97 | 0.77 | 0.72 | −0.72 | 0.78 | 1 | ||||||||||||
NO3− (mg/L) | −0.06 | 0.49 | 0.99 | 0.92 | 0.88 | −0.88 | 0.58 | 0.96 | 1 | |||||||||||
PO43− (mg/L) | −0.72 | −0.21 | 0.77 | 0.41 | 0.34 | −0.34 | 0.97 | 0.89 | 0.74 | 1 | ||||||||||
SO42− (mg/L) | −0.73 | −0.98 | −0.59 | −0.88 | −0.91 | 0.92 | 0.25 | −0.39 | −0.63 | 0.05 | 1 | |||||||||
E. coli (cfu/100mL) | −0.53 | 0.01 | 0.89 | 0.62 | 0.55 | −0.55 | 0.9 | 0.97 | 0.87 | 0.97 | −0.18 | 1 | ||||||||
Enterococci (cfu/100mL) | −0.64 | −0.1 | 0.83 | 0.51 | 0.44 | −0.44 | 0.94 | 0.93 | 0.8 | 0.99 | −0.05 | 0.99 | 1 | |||||||
Fe (mg/L) | 0.99 | 0.83 | −0.11 | 0.3 | 0.39 | −0.4 | −0.84 | −0.33 | −0.06 | −0.71 | −0.73 | −0.53 | −0.63 | 1 | ||||||
Mn (mg/L) | −0.64 | −0.95 | −0.68 | −0.93 | −0.95 | 0.96 | 0.14 | −0.5 | −0.71 | −0.06 | 0.99 | −0.29 | −0.17 | −0.6 | 1 | |||||
Pb (mg/L) | −0.15 | 0.41 | 0.99 | 0.88 | 0.84 | −0.83 | 0.65 | 0.98 | 0.99 | 0.79 | −0.56 | 0.91 | 0.85 | −0.2 | −0.7 | 1 | ||||
Ca (mg/L) | 0.15 | 0.66 | 0.96 | 0.98 | 0.96 | −0.96 | 0.39 | 0.88 | 0.97 | 0.58 | −0.78 | 0.75 | 0.66 | 0.14 | −0.9 | 0.95 | 1 | |||
Mg (mg/L) | 0.04 | 0.58 | 0.98 | 0.95 | 0.93 | −0.92 | 0.49 | 0.92 | 0.99 | 0.66 | −0.71 | 0.82 | 0.74 | 0.03 | −0.8 | 0.98 | 0.99 | 1 | ||
Na (mg/L) | 0.12 | 0.64 | 0.97 | 0.97 | 0.95 | −0.95 | 0.42 | 0.89 | 0.98 | 0.6 | −0.76 | 0.77 | 0.68 | 0.12 | −0.8 | 0.96 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 1 | |
Cd (mg/L) | 0.36 | 0.81 | 0.88 | 0.99 | 0.99 | −0.99 | 0.18 | 0.75 | 0.9 | 0.39 | −0.89 | 0.59 | 0.48 | 0.35 | −0.9 | 0.86 | 0.97 | 0.94 | 0.96 | 1 |
Parameters | Sampling Points | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Upstream | 5.15 | ||||
Cd | Midstream | 1.03 | |||
Downstream | 1.03 | ||||
Upstream | |||||
Pb | Midstream | ||||
Downstream | |||||
Upstream | - | ||||
Mn | Midstream | - | |||
Downstream | - | ||||
Upstream | - | ||||
Fe | Midstream | - | |||
Downstream | - | ||||
Upstream | - | - | - | ||
HI | Midstream | - | - | - | |
Downstream | - | - | - |
Parameters | Sampling Points | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Upstream | |||||
Cd | Midstream | ||||
Downstream | |||||
Upstream | 10−1 | ||||
Pb | Midstream | ||||
Downstream | 1.09 × 10−2 | ||||
Upstream | 10−3 | - | |||
Mn | Midstream | - | |||
Downstream | - | ||||
Upstream | - | ||||
Fe | Midstream | - | |||
Downstream | - | ||||
Upstream | - | - | - | ||
HI | Midstream | - | - | 10−2 | - |
Downstream | - | - | 1.09 × 10−2 | - |
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Madilonga, R.T.; Edokpayi, J.N.; Volenzo, E.T.; Durowoju, O.S.; Odiyo, J.O. Water Quality Assessment and Evaluation of Human Health Risk in Mutangwi River, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6765. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136765
Madilonga RT, Edokpayi JN, Volenzo ET, Durowoju OS, Odiyo JO. Water Quality Assessment and Evaluation of Human Health Risk in Mutangwi River, Limpopo Province, South Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(13):6765. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136765
Chicago/Turabian StyleMadilonga, Rofhiwa T., Joshua N. Edokpayi, Elijah T. Volenzo, Olatunde S. Durowoju, and John O. Odiyo. 2021. "Water Quality Assessment and Evaluation of Human Health Risk in Mutangwi River, Limpopo Province, South Africa" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 13: 6765. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136765